BRITISH TELEVISION NEWS IN TilE 1990s: NEWSWORThINESS IN A MULTI-ORGAMSATIONAL AND MULTI-PROGRAMME ENVIRONMENT JACKIE L HARRISON Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Sociological Studies University of Sheffield July 1995 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No. Abstract 1 Glossary of Terms 111 Acknowledgements V Introduction 1 PART I: APPROACHING THE STUDY OF TELEVISION NEWSWORTHINESS 38 IN THE 1990S Chapter 1 The Media, Television News and Democracy (a) Introduction 41 (b) The Broad Socio-Political Context of Television News in Modern Society I) The Public Sphere and the Media 45 II) The Public Interest and the Media 55 ifi) Television News, Democracy and Populism 68 (c) Television News Values: Objectivity and Newsworthiness in Television News I) Journalistic Objectivity: Ideal and Practical 74 II) Newsworthiness 84 (d) Social Change and Television News I) Political Economic Changes and the New 88 Commercialization of Television News II) Technological Changes 92 ifi) Transnational Changes 95 (e) Summary 98 Chapter 2: Researching News and the Media (a) Introduction 104 I) Television News and Media Research: 107 Broad Theoretical Concerns II) Dimensions of Media Research 111 (b) News and Media Content 115 (c) News and Media Production 128 (d) Summary: Assessing the Various Approaches 146 to the Study of Television Newsworthiness PART H: TELEVISION NEWS RESEARCH Page No. Chapter 3: Project Design and Methodology (a) Introduction: Methodology 156 I) A Multi-Orgamsational Approach to the Study 156 of Television News II) A Multi-Programme Approach to the Study of 156 of Television News ifi) A Dual Approach to the Study of Television 157 News: A Content Analysis and Television Newsroom Observation Study Combined (b) An Analysis of the Advantages and Disadvantages of Content Analysis I) Advantages of Content Analysis as a Method for 158 Analysing Television News Content II) Disadvantages of Content Analysis as a Method 159 for Analysing Television News Content (c) The Relevance of Content Analysis to this Study: A Description of the Method used I) Relevance of Content Analysis 162 II) A Description of the Method Used 164 (d) An Analysis of the Advantages and Disadvantages of Observation I) Advantages of Newsroom Observation as a 180 Method for Analysing Television News II) Disadvantages of Newsroom Observation as 182 a Method for Analysing Television News (e) The Relevance of Newsroom Observation to this Study: A Description of the Method used I) Relevance of Newsroom Observation 184 II) A Description of the Method Used 188 (f) Summaiy: The Strengths and Limits of a Dual Approach to Methodology I) A Dual Approach to Methodology: Its Importance 195 and Its Strengths II) A Dual Approach to Methodology: Its Current 195 Weaknesses and Future Research Strategies Appendix 1: Television News Code Book 198 Appendix 2: Television News Coding Schedule 213 Page No. Chapter 4: Content Analysis (a) Introduction 215 (b) Definitions 216 (c) The Coding Schedule 218 (d) The Main Findings I) National/International News 220 II) The Presenter 228 ifi) Reporting Styles: Format of the News 235 IV) Reporting Styles: Content of the News 263 (e) Sunimary 319 Chapter 5: Fieldwork: Newsroom Observation Study (a) Introduction 322 (b) Newsroom Observation Periods 323 (c) The Main Findings I) The Newsroom Routine 324 II) Newsroom Analysis 336 ifi) Broad Programme Typology Analysis 363 (d) Summary 366 FART ifi: TELEVISION NEWSWORTHINESS AND PRODUCTION CULTURE: NEWS ORGANISATION AND NEWS 368 PROGRAMME SIMLARITIES AND DIFFERENCES Chapter 6: Similarities: Shared Culture and Values (a) Introduction 370 (b) Shared Extant Formulas, Practices and Normative Assumptions I) Journalistic Training 376 II) Editorial Policy and Formal Meetings 383 ifi) Broadcasting Law 391 IV) Audience Measurement 394 V) Technology 397 VI) Logistics of News Selection and Production 405 VII) Planning 407 VIII) Infonnal Organisational Processes 412 (c) Common Journalistic Lores and Myths, Shared Common-Sense Values I) Journalistic Language and Humour 414 II) The Known Myths of Objectivity and 421 Investigative Journalism ifi) The Myth of the Audience 422 (d) Summaiy 424 Page No. Chapter 7: Differences: Different Cultural Norms (a) Introduction 427 (b) Different Organisational Structures and Origins I) The Histoiy and Culture of the BBC 429 II) The Structure of the BBC 439 ifi) The History and Culture of ITN 447 IV) The Structure of ITN 453 (c) The Commercial Imperative Versus Public Service 455 Broadcasting (d) Different Organisational News Philosophies and 461 News Values (e) Different Programme Epistemologies I) Domestic News 473 II) International News 488 (f) Sununaiy 491 Chapter 8: Big News and Media Events: A Case Study of British Weekday Television News (a) Introduction 494 (b) Background and Description: Events Occuring 506 in Waco, Texas from 19th - 23rd April 1993 (c) Programme Similarities: The "Media" Line 520 (d) Programme Differences: The Bid for Diversity 541 (e) Conclusion: Analysis of the Big News Story 557 and the Media Event Conclusion: Definitions of Newsworthiness in the Mid-1990s 566 Notes to Chapters 587 Biblioraphy 611 ABSTRACT This study is concerned with the constituent features of television news in Britain in the 1990s. It examines both the content of television news and production strategies employed by television journalists in the context of the changing structural and cultural relations of British television during the 1980s and 1990s. An underlying theme of this thesis is the important role that television news has to play in relation to citizenship rights and as an important institution of the public sphere in Britain. A process of fragmentation of the television news genre has in recent years, resulted in the evolution of a variety of different news programmes which exhibit different concepts of newsworthiness and public interest journalism. Such fragmentation is challenging long established notions of quality and public interest progranmiing and replacing them with a more populist approach emphasing entertainment. In addition the ability of televison news to play an important role in enabling the public to play an active part in a democracy is being further restricted and undermined in the mid- 1990s through the increasing commercialization of broadcasting institutions. To date analyses of news content and news production have tended to ignore the complexity of the news genre itself and have assumed that television journalism can be analysed as a unitary practice, neglecting the competitive diversity and dynamic technological change occurring in British broadcasting. However it is a theme of 1 this thesis that the critical analysis and interpretation of television news remains incomplete without an in-depth study of the multiplicity of news programmes and news orgamsations which exist in Britain in the 1990s. This thesis shows, using content analysis and observational analysis, that television news in the 1990s has reached a critical juncture. Key vectors of change, politico-economic (including the new wave of commercialization of television news in the 1990s), technological and transnational influences have strongly affected the broadcasting environment in Britain over the last decade and increased the pressure on news providers. News values are becoming more tied to particular contractual specifications made upon news programmes. Newsworthiness itself is constructed within journalistic professional culture, by the journalist's zone and mode of operation, and is adapted to the designated style of an organisation or programme. The variety and diversity of "mid-ranking stories" and the differences in treatment of "big news stories" by different news programmes - processes which are revealed in the empirical studies in this thesis - illustrate clearly how newsworthiness can be adapted and changed to fit particular programme epistemologies. 11 GLOSSARY OF TERMS Aston A superimposed caption on screen indicating someone's name, profession, source of the film, or use of library pictures. The machine is called an Aston machine GVs General Views. General film of a building or location, such as the Houses of Parliament, which can be used by the correspondent as a means of linking different component parts of a news story, or when there is no other film available. Often the GVs are used to end a piece. Also such film can be used several times as it does not immediately date. Therefore a correspondent doing a political piece may ask the Video Tape editor to supply some GVs of the Houses of Parliament. InVis In vision - i.e. not "out of vision" - speaking over pictures, usually refers to the presenter Inset or Still The still photograph or image which is often placed at the side of the presenter when introducing a news story Lead-in Written introduction to a taped report or interview, read by the presenter but usually written by a newsroom journalist Live Two- When a presenter speaks directly to a reporter "in the Way field" via a live link Newswrap When two or three news packages are shown together, superimposed over the presenter's voice (see Out of Vision and Underlay below). Out of Vision BBC term for moving pictures which are superimposed over the presenter's voice, ie is not part of a package or a report. This is usually abbreviated to an "OOV" This is called an "Underlay" or a "Ulay" at ITN. Package An all-embracing term for a reporter's report Peg When an event has occurred upon which other issues or pre-prepared material can be "hung". 111 RT Running Time - the time length of a report Rushes Raw, unedited picture material for a report/package Script Generic term for almost any news item written for broadcast Sign-off Refers to the name, location and organisation "sign-off' made by reporters to round off their reports. For example John Smith, BBC, London. Track Refers solely to the spoken commentary part of a report or package Underlay ITN term for moving pictures which are superimposed (Ulay) over the presenter's voice, ie is not part of a package or a report.