Public Information Advertisements: Māori Perspectives Steven Elers Auckland University of Technology Te Wānanga Aronui o Tāmaki Makau Rau This thesis is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2016 “Oh my body, make of me a man who always questions” Frantz Fanon i HE MIHI He hōnore, he korōria ki te Atua, he maungārongo ki te mata o te whenua, he whakaaro pai ki ngā tāngata katoa. Ki a rātou mā kua whetūrangitia, nei rā te mihi atu. E moe ki te urunga tē taka, te moenga tē whakaarahia. Mā muri nei rātou e whakaaro, mā muri nei rātou e kōrero. E tuku mihi ana ahau ki te tīni ngerongero i āwhina mai, i tautoko mai i ahau i roto i te mahi nei. Mei kore ake koutou, e kore tēneki e whakatutuki pai ai i te tuhinga roa nei. Kei tōku Kōkara taha, nō te waka o Tainui, ko Ngāti Kauwhata-ki-te- tonga ki Kai-iwi Pā, ko taku ūkaipō. He hononga hoki nōku ki a Ngāti Hauā, Ngāti Raukawa-ki-te-tonga, Ngāti Maniapoto. Ki tōku Pāpara taha, nō te waka o Tainui hoki tētehi pekanga, ko Ngāti Hikairo. Nō te waka o Takitimu, ko Ngāti Kahungunu, ko Kāti Waewae ki Arahura. Nō Rangitāne ki Wairarapa hoki ahau. I whirinaki ahau ki ōku whakapapa hei kimi whakaaro, hei kimi kōrero e pā ana ki te kaupapa nei. He kaupapa e hono atu ana ki a tātou katoa - Māori mai, Pākehā mai, aha atu mai. Kia tau ngā manaakitanga o te Runga Rawa ki runga i a tātou katoa. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge and express my appreciation and gratitude to my doctoral supervisors, Dr Frances Nelson and Dr Rosser Johnson. Both have had a profound impact upon my thinking and have always been highly supportive over the duration of this research. Thank you both for your guidance during this journey. I am grateful to Auckland University of Technology for supporting my research with the AUT Vice-Chancellor’s Doctoral Scholarship. I am also appreciative of the Waikato Raupatu Lands Trust for supporting my research with the Waikato-Tainui Doctoral Scholarship. I would like to acknowledge Professor Shiv Ganesh and Dr Susan Fountaine at Massey University for their support during the final year of my doctorate. I would like to thank the staff and students at the AUT School of Communication Studies for the conversations, opportunities, and learning experiences. I participated in a number of seminars and events hosted by the school and the wider university which contributed to my learning. One such event was the AUT Māori and Pacific Postgraduate Students Wānanga Series which I attended every month. I would like to thank Professor Pare Keiha and Professor Tania Ka'ai for their manaakitanga. Finally, I would like to thank the 70 people who so graciously agreed to participate in this research. This includes the 63 participants of my focus groups (who cannot be named due to ethical requirements); the Māori leaders: Naida Glavish, John Tamihere, Jade Tapine, Precious Clark, and Morgan Godfery; and also Dr Paul Graham and Rachel Prince from the New Zealand Transport Agency. Without them, the completion of this study would not have been possible. iii DECLARATION I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person (except where explicitly defined in the acknowledgements), nor material which to a substantial extent has been submitted for the award of any other degree or diploma of a university or other institution of higher learning. Date: 2 May 2016 Steven Elers Auckland University of Technology iv ABSTRACT The broad objective of this research is to examine Māori perspectives of public information advertisements as part of wider social marketing campaigns in Aotearoa New Zealand that are designed to persuade Māori to change their behaviours. Underpinned by a kaupapa Māori approach, I conducted focus group discussions and semi-structured interviews. Influenced by grounded theory as a method of analysis, participants felt that the public information advertisements affix blame rather than fix problems. Participants felt that the advertisements positioned Māori as stereotyped caricatures that fit within the mould of deficit ideologies. For example, Māori were consistently shown as criminal, drink and drug drivers, child abusers and so forth. This is concerning given that the mass media are the primary source of information about cultural groups other than one’s own and can influence conceptions of social reality. Moreover, the diverse realities of Māori emerged within the research as two distinct groups were identified; the lower socio-economic group (either rural or urban based and on a social welfare benefit or employed in unskilled labour), and the middle socio-economic group (urban based, tertiary educated and/or in skilled employment). Participants from the lower socio-economic group offered personal experiences of the health and social issues that were portrayed in the advertisements. On the other hand, the middle socio-economic group did not offer any experiences of the health and social issues and were highly critical of the advertisements, even when prompted for positive feedback. There were differences between the two socio-economic groups in how they interpreted or decoded the advertisements. This research has questioned whether social marketing initiatives and public information advertisements are the appropriate tools to counter the health and social issues that impact upon Māori, and further, if public information advertisements are necessary, then they should be created by Māori, for Māori. v TABLE OF CONTENTS HE MIHI II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS III DECLARATION IV ABSTRACT V LIST OF TABLES IX GLOSSARY X 1 INTRODUCTION 1 THESIS STRUCTURE 10 2 A CRITICAL BACKGROUND 12 MĀORI: THE HISTORICAL AND SOCIO-POLITICAL CONTEXT 14 IN THE BEGINNING 17 THE ARRIVAL 19 SOCIAL STRUCTURES 20 ONCE WERE HEALTHY 23 THE START OF COLONISATION 24 LOSS OF LAND – LOSS OF LANGUAGE 25 PĀKEHĀ PRIVILEGE 26 URBANISATION 27 SUMMARY 28 CRISIS: THE HEALTH AND SOCIAL ISSUES 29 POVERTY 30 LIFE EXPECTANCY 32 OBESITY AND RELATED DISEASES 32 TOBACCO AND ALCOHOL 33 FAMILY VIOLENCE 34 CRITICISM OF HEALTH AND SOCIAL STATISTICS 35 SUMMARY 36 3 SOCIAL MARKETING 38 WHAT IS SOCIAL MARKETING? 39 TAXONOMIES 43 THEORETICAL MODELS FOR PERSUASION 45 SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY 47 HEALTH BELIEF MODEL 49 vi THEORY OF REASONED ACTION 50 THEORY OF SELF-REGULATION AND SELF-CONTROL 51 THEORY OF SUBJECTIVE CULTURE AND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS 52 MĀORI AND INDIGENOUS THEORIES 52 SOCIAL MARKETING IN AOTEAROA NEW ZEALAND 53 PUBLIC INFORMATION ADVERTISEMENTS 55 TARGETING MĀORI AUDIENCES 58 AGENTS OF SOCIAL CONTROL 61 CRITICISMS OF SOCIAL MARKETING 63 SUMMARY 69 4 MĀORI REPRESENTATION AND IDENTITY 70 REPRESENTATION 71 WHAT IS REPRESENTATION? 71 STEREOTYPES 75 MĀORI REPRESENTATION 77 SUMMARY 85 TUAKIRI: IDENTITY 86 WHAT IS IDENTITY? 87 SOCIAL IDENTITY PERSPECTIVE 88 “WHEN IS A MĀORI A ‘MĀORI’?” 91 WHAKAPAPA 93 MĀORI CULTURAL IDENTITY 95 SUMMARY 97 5 METHODOLOGY 99 CRITICAL THEORY 100 KAUPAPA MĀORI 102 COMMUNICATION THEORY 106 PROPAGANDA THEORY 107 ENCODING/DECODING MODEL – RECEPTION THEORY 108 SOURCE CREDIBILITY THEORY 110 CULTIVATION THEORY 111 SUMMARY OF COMMUNICATION THEORY 112 GROUNDED THEORY 113 SPECIFIC PROCEDURES 118 FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS 120 INTERVIEWS 125 SUMMARY OF METHODOLOGY 128 6 MĀORI PERSPECTIVES 129 vii SOCIAL STRATIFICATION 131 DEHUMANISING DEPICTIONS 135 SOS: SAVING OUR SOCIETY 146 CAPTURING CRITICISMS 160 PROMOTING POSITIVES 175 IDENTIFYING IDENTITY 183 SUMMARY 193 7 NZTA PERSPECTIVES 195 8 DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION 211 WHOSE FAULT? 212 ‘MĀORIS’ ARE BAD 213 FROM TELEVISION TO REAL LIFE 214 DIVERSE REALITIES 217 DECODING THE MESSAGES 219 CEASE AND DESIST? 220 BY MĀORI, FOR MĀORI 222 CONCLUSION 223 REFERENCES 226 APPENDICES 290 APPENDIX A: THEORIES OF BEHAVIOUR 291 APPENDIX B: AGENTS OF SOCIAL CONTROL 1 293 APPENDIX C: AGENTS OF SOCIAL CONTROL 2 295 APPENDIX D: MEMO 296 APPENDIX E: PROFILES OF MĀORI LEADERS 297 PROFILE: NAIDA GLAVISH 297 PROFILE: JOHN TAMIHERE 297 PROFILE: JADE TAPINE 298 PROFILE: PRECIOUS CLARK 298 PROFILE: MORGAN GODFERY 299 viii LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1 Patterns in Media Discourse 5.1 Public Information Advertisements LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 One More Bro for the Road - Billboard 2.1 Smokefree 2.2 My Brother Almost Died 2.3 Diabetes 2.4 Diabetes 2.5 Smoking Not Our Future 2.6 It’s Not Ok 3.1 Grand Axis Winners 2014 ix GLOSSARY Aotearoa - New Zealand Ariki - paramount chief Atua - God Hapū - subtribe Hui - gathering, meeting Io - The Supreme Being Iwi - tribe Iwi kotahi - united people Kai - food, meal Kanohi kitea - the seen face Kanohi ki te kanohi - face-to-face Kapa haka - Māori cultural performing group Karakia - prayer Kaumātua - elder Kaupapa - topic, matter for discussion, subject Kaupapa Māori - Māori research approach Kawa - protocol Kēhua - ghost Kīngitanga - Māori king movement Koha - offering/donation Kōrero - talk, discussion, conversation Koro - elderly man, grandfather Korowai - traditional cloak Kuia - elderly woman, grandmother Mākutu - witchcraft, spells Mana - prestige, status, influence Mana whenua - territorial rights Māoritanga - Māori culture, practices and beliefs Marae - courtyard and meeting house Matakite - prophets, clairvoyants, special intuition Mātauranga Māori - Māori knowledge Mau rākau - traditional Māori martial arts Mihi/mihi whakatau - greeting speech Ngāi Tahu - a tribe in the South Island Ngāi Tūhoe - a tribe in the Bay of Plenty Ngāpuhi - a tribe in Northland Ngāti Awa - a tribe in the Bay of Plenty Ngāti Hauā - a tribe in the Waikato