NOTES The following abbreviations have been used in the references below. U.S. Presidential Libraries and National Archives CIA-FOIA Central Intelligence Agency Freedom of Information Act Document Collection, http://www.foia.cia.gov/ DDEL Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, Abilene, Kansas GRFL Gerald R. Ford Library, Ann Arbor, Michigan HSTL Harry S. Truman Library, Independence, Missouri JCL Jimmy Carter Library, Atlanta, Georgia JFKL John F. Kennedy Library, Boston, Massachusetts LBJL Lyndon B. Johnson Library, Austin, Texas NARA National Archives and Records Administration II, College Park, Maryland NPMP Nixon Presidential Materials Project (archived at NARA) NSAF National Security Adviser’s Files (archived at the GRFL) NSF National Security File(s) (archived at the JFKL or the LBJL) RG59 Record Group 59—Department of State (archived at NARA) DoS-FOIA Department of State Freedom of Information Act Document Collection, http://foia.state.gov/SearchColls/CollsSearch.asp WHCF White House Central Files (archived at the HSTL or the JCL) U.S. Government Publications DSB Department of State Bulletin DSD U.S. Department of State Dispatch FRUS Foreign Relations of the United States UST United States Treaties and Other International Agreements Preface and Acknowledgments 1. Alex Thomson, Incomplete engagement: U.S. foreign policy towards the Republic of South Africa, 1981–1988. Aldershot: Avebury, 1996; and Alex Thomson, Reagan’s South Africa policy revisited. Journal of Modern African Studies. 1995, 33(1), 83–101. 176 NOTES 2. Alex Thomson, Balancing interests beyond the water’s edge: identifying the key interests that determined U.S. foreign policy towards apartheid South Africa. Politikon. 2005, 32(1), 123–137; and Alex Thomson, Contending with apartheid: United States foreign policy towards South Africa, 1948–1994. Studia Diplomatica. 2005, 58(4), 51–74. 3. Memo, Biko to Clark, 1 December 1976. Published in Steve Biko, I write what I like: a selection of his writings. London: Penguin, 1988. 158. Introduction 1. For books based respectively on these approaches see Janice Love, The U.S. anti- apartheid movement: local activism in global politics. New York: Praeger, 1985; Neta C. Crawford and Audie Klotz, How sanctions work: lessons from South Africa. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999; and Robert Kinloch Massie, Loosing the bonds: the United States and South Africa in the apartheid years. New York: Doubleday, 1997. 1 U.S. Interests and Apartheid South Africa 1. See Stephen E. Ambrose, Rise to globalism: American foreign policy since 1938. New York: Penguin, 1985. xiii. 2. Ibid. xv. 3. Dean Acheson, Present at the creation: my years in the State Department. New York: Norton, 1969. 727. 4. See Tom Lodge, State of exile: the African National Congress of South Africa, 1976–86. Third World Quarterly. 1987, 9(1), 5 and 16. 5. Michael Radu, The African National Congress: cadres and credo. Problems of Communism. 1987, 36(4), 59 and 64. 6. Richard E. Bissell, How strategic is South Africa? In Richard E. Bissell and Chester A. Crocker, eds. South Africa into the 1980s. 209. 7. Robert J. Hanks, The Cape Route: imperiled Western lifeline. Cambridge, MA: Institute for Foreign Policy Analysis, 1981. 19. 8. The [Rockefeller] Study Commission on U.S. Foreign Policy Toward Southern Africa. South Africa: time running out. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981. 329. 9. Hanks. The Cape Route. xi. 10. Stewart Menaul. The security of the southern oceans: southern Africa the key. NATO’s Fifteen Nations. 1972, April/May, 44 and 46. 11. Cited in David Johnson, Troubled waters for the U.S. Navy. Africa Report. 1975, 20(1), 10. 12. G.S. Brown, Current JCS theatre appraisals, the strategic importance of 7 vital international areas. Commanders Digest. 1977, 20, 21. 13. “Luns over NATO en de Alantische Oceean” Nieuwsbulletin. 1972, 41, 1–2. Cited in Christopher Coker, South Africa and the Western alliance 1949–81: a history of illusions. Royal United Services Institute Journal for Defence Studies. 1982, 127(2), 36. 14. See The Study Commission … time running out. 310. 15. See W.G.J. Van Rensberg and D.A. Pretorious, South Africa’s strategic minerals: pieces on a continental chess board. Johannesburg: Valiant, 1977. 21. 16. See Strategic minerals and the USA. Mining Survey (Johannesburg). 1987, 1/3, 3–29. NOTES 177 17. Hanns W. Maull, South Africa’s minerals: the Achilles heel of Western economic security? International Affairs. 1986, 62(4), 619. 18. The Study Commission... time running out. 310–318. 19. See Van Rensberg and Pretorious. Strategic Minerals. 112. 20. W. Scott Thompson and Brett Silvers. South Africa in Soviet strategy. In Bissell and Crocker, eds. South Africa into the 1980s. 141. 21. See P. Vannemann and M. James, The Soviet intervention in Angola: intentions and implications. Strategic Review. 1976, 4(3), 92–103. 22. Anthony Harrigan, South Africa: the ultimate target. National Review. 1976, 18(17), 496. 23. Section 503 of the United States’ Military Procurement Act of 1972 (PL92–156). 24. U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of Economic Analysis. Survey of Current Business. 1956, 36(8), 19 and 23; 1961, 41(8), 22–23; 1966, 46(9), 34–35; 1972, 52(11), 30; 1977, 57(8), 44 and 50; 1984, 64(11), 24–25; 1986, 66(8), 70; 1988, 68(8), 65; and 1991, 71(8), 104; and Ann Seidman and Neva Seidman,South Africa and U.S. multinational corporations. Westport: Lawrence Hill, 1978. 81. Returns on investment are calculated by investment income as a percentage of the total direct investment. 25. Richard W. Hull, American enterprise in South Africa: historical dimensions of engage- ment and disengagement. New York: New York University Press, 1990. 2 and 5. 26. Ibid. 13–29. 27. Thomas J. Noer, Briton, Boer, and Yankee: the United States and South Africa 1870–1914. Kent (Ohio): Kent State University Press, 1978. 4. 28. Clark C. Spence, Mining engineers and the American west: the lace boot brigade 1849–1933. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970. 304. 29. Hull. American enterprise. 68–72; and Charles Van Onselen, Studies in the social and economic history of the Witwatersrand, 1886–1914. 1. Harlow: Longman, 1982. 122. 30. Kevin Danaher, The political economy of U.S. policy toward South Africa. Boulder: Westview Press, 1985. 32; and Hull, American enterprise. 139 and 32. 31. Hull, American enterprise. 183–186. 32. U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of Economic Analysis. Survey of Current Business. 1956, 36(8), 19 and 23; 1961, 41(8), 22–23; 1966, 46(9), 34–35; 1972, 52(11), 30; 1977, 57(8), 44 and 50; 1984, 64(11), 24–25; 1986, 66(8), 70; 1988, 68(8), 65; 1991, 71(8), 104; and 1994, 74(8), 134. Returns on investment are calculated by investment income as a percentage of the total direct investment. 33. Ibid. 34. Cited in John Deverell, Falconbridge: portrait of a Canadian mining multinational. Toronto: James Larimer, 1975. 155. 35. See Robert Pollin, The multinational mineral industry in crisis. Monthly Review. 1980, 31(11), 28; Obie G. Wichard, U.S. direct investment abroad in 1980. Survey of Current Business. 1981, 61(8), 20–39; Samuel Pizer, Income on international investment of the United States. Survey of Current Business. 1950, 31(10), 7–14. Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office [henceforth abbreviated as GPO], 1950; and U.S. Department of Commerce Bureau. Survey of current business 1980. Washington DC: U.S. GPO, 1980. 36. Fortune’s 500 industrials (published in Ford S. Worthy, The 500: the Fortune directory of the largest U.S. industrial corporations. Fortune. 1981, 103(9), 322–349) have been compared against Glenn S. Goldberg, IRRC directory of U.S. corporations in South Africa. Washington DC: Investor Responsibility Research Centre, 1982. The IRRC list covers U.S. firms operating in South Africa during 1980 and 1981. 178 NOTES 37. Archibald MacLeish cited in Sandy Vogelgesang, American dream, global nightmare: the dilemma of U.S. human rights policy. New York: Norton, 1980. 15. 38. See, for instance, Louis Hartz, The liberal tradition in America: an interpretation of American political thought since the revolution. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1955; and Louis Hartz, The founding of new societies: studies in the history of the United States, Latin America, South Africa, Canada, and Australia. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1964. 69–122. 39. Dexter Perkins, The American approach to foreign policy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1962. 76 and 84. 40. Richard N. Cooper and Joseph S. Nye. Ethics and foreign policy. In Samuel P. Huntington and Joseph S. Nye, eds. Global dilemmas. Lanham: University Press of America, 1985. 41 and 23. 41. Written by Biko under the pseudonym Frank Talk in an article entitled “I write what I like: let’s talk about Bantustans.” Published in Steve Biko, I write what I like: a selection of writings. London: Penguin, 1988. 101. 42. Republic of South Africa. Department of Foreign Affairs. Bureau of Information. South Africa 1987–1988: official yearbook of the Republic of South Africa. 13. Pretoria: Bureau of Information, 1988. 87 and 84. 43. Delia Hendrie, Handbook of labour and social statistics. Cape Town: The Southern African Labour and Development Research Unit, University of Cape Town, 1986. 296. 44. U.N. General Assembly resolutions 2145(XXI), 27 October 1966 and 2248 (XXII), 19 May 1967. 45. Security Council resolution 264(1969), 20 March 1969. 2 The Truman and Eisenhower Administrations 1. Cable, Gallman to State, 2 March 1953. U.S. Department of State. Bureau of Public Affairs. Office of the Historian. FRUS, 1952–1954. XI(i). Washington DC: U.S. GPO, 1983. 988. 2. CIA. Political situation in the Union of South Africa [ORE 1–49]. 31 January 1949. 1. ORE: 1949: 1–16.