Turkish Migration Policies: A Critical Historical Retrospective Ahmet İÇDUYGU* and Damla B. AKSEL** Abstract Introduction As the Turkish state’s position on the issue of As noted by Massey,1 migration international migration is being transformed, new questions have arisen about the state’s studies have historically paid relatively policies on immigration and emigration. little attention to the nation-state These are two issues that have long been seen “as an agent influencing the volume as separate in migration literature. The aim and composition of international of this article is to unite these two issues in order to present a retrospective on the Turkish migration”. In the last decade, although state’s responses to the realities of immigration this picture has changed considerably and emigration. We describe the migration and nation-states are now recognised patterns in Turkey by focusing on four key periods: a) the two-way immigration and as important actors in migration, these emigration circulation in the early period of efforts have been focusing primarily on modern Turkey; b) the emigration boom since the cases of migrant-receiving countries. the 1950s; c) the emergence of new migration patterns in the 1980s; and d) the new forms Relatively little work has been done on of migration governance employed since the migrant-sending countries, and even 2000s. By examining these patterns and the less has been written on the state’s role state’s responses, we aim to analyse the diverging both in emigration and immigration, political rationalities of different periods. either in promoting or in limiting. Key Words This essay takes up that challenge and aims to elaborate on the dynamics and Immigration, emigration, migration mechanisms of international migration policies, nation-building, globalisation. policies in Turkey. It provides us with a fascinating case study on how emigration and immigration policies are made and * Department of International Relations, Koç transformed over time as a result of University. ** PhD candidate at the Department of changing economic, social and political International Relations, Koç University. contexts at the global and local levels. 167 PERCEPTIONS, Autumn 2013, Volume XVIII, Number 3, pp. 167-190. Ahmet İçduygu and Damla B. Aksel Turkey as a civilised and modern nation- Since the collapse of the state. This contributed to the mobilisation Ottoman Empire and the of millions of people, first from rural emergence of the modern to urban areas within Turkey, and later Turkish state, both emigration from Turkey to other countries. In the and immigration have become mid-20th century, emigration was viewed integral parts of deep-rooted through the political economy lens and state policies concerning the served the country’s developmentalism nation-building process and projects. In recent decades, there have national integrity. been two important developments which have led to important changes in th Since the early 20 century, migratory the Turkish state’s position on the issues movements have fundamentally shaped of international migration. First, when the structure and nature of Turkish transnational spaces built up alongside society. One of the basic characteristics of the formation of Turkey- originated this phenomenon is that the Turkish state diaspora communities, and as the global has exploited mobility across and within changes affected these transnational its borders, either explicitly or implicitly, spaces and networks, the Turkish as a tool of the modernisation process. state engaged in diaspora politics by Since the collapse of the Ottoman dynamically using these spaces and Empire and the emergence of the modern networks as diplomatic tools and its Turkish state, both emigration and expatriates as political and cultural immigration have become integral parts agents abroad. Second, as Turkey has of deep-rooted state policies concerning begun to attract non-Turkish and non- the nation-building process and national Muslim immigrants for the first time integrity. For instance, while people of in its recent history, it has increasingly Turkish origin and Islamic faith were become a transit and destination country encouraged to migrate to Turkey, non- for immigration, forcing the state to Muslims in Turkey were discouraged develop new policies and programmes from remaining. When Westernisation on immigration. The implementation defined the main political dimension of of such measures implies a cautious the state-centric Turkish modernity, one transition from long- established aspect of its sociological grounding was policies, which were mostly formulated a top-down vision of urbanism that was through the lens of nationalism, to viewed as a necessity for the making of new liberal ones that have been partly 168 Turkish Migration Policies: A Critical Historical Retrospective affected by Turkey’s engagement with periods: first, the two-way immigration global dynamics and its involvement in and emigration circulation in the early European Union affairs. periods of modern Turkey; second, the emigration boom since the 1950s; In this essay we do not only intend third, the emergence of new migration to address the Turkish state’s roles in patterns in the 1980s; and fourth, the shaping the nature of immigration and new forms of migration transition and emigration flows concerning Turkey, its governance since the 2000s (see Table but will also elaborate on its responses 1). By examining these patterns, and the to the shifting realities of immigration state’s responses, we aim to analyse the and emigration. We portray migration diverging political rationalities of these patterns in Turkey by focusing on four key different epochs. Table 1: Selected Milestones in Turkish Immigration and Emigration Policy Since early 20th century Two-way immigration and emigration circulation (1923-1950s) • The Treaty of Constantinople between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Bulgaria, facilitating reciprocal optional change of populations (1913) • Armenian deportation (1915) • Treaty of Lausanne (1923) • Foundation of Turkish Republic (1923) • Convention concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations (1923) • Law 2510/1934 Settlement Act (1934) The migration boom after the 1950s • Law 5682/1950 Passport Law • Law 5683/1950 related to Residence and Travels of Foreign Subjects (1950) • United Nations Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (1951) • Greek emigration from Turkey (1955) • Early suitcase traders from USSR (late 1950s) • Turkey-West Germany labour recruitment agreement (1961) • United Nations Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees (1967) • Oil crisis and the halt of labour emigration to Europe (1973-1974) 169 Ahmet İçduygu and Damla B. Aksel The emergence of new migration patterns in the 1980s • 1982 Constitution • Soviet Union’s invasion in Afghanistan and Afghan immigration • The First Persian Gulf War between Iran and Iraq (1980-1988) • The End of the Cold War and immigration from post-Soviet territories • 1989 expulsion of Turks from Bulgaria (1989) • Gulf War and mass immigration of Kurdish populations (1991) • Regulation No. 6169/1994 on the Procedures and Principles related to Possible Population Movements and Aliens Arriving in Turkey either as Individuals or in Groups Wishing to Seek Asylum either from Turkey or Requesting Residence Permission in order to Seek Asylum From Another Country (1994) • Law 4112/1995 Act on Amendments to Citizenship Law (1995) • Helsinki European Council (1999) New modes of migration transition and its governance since the 2000s • Law on the Work Permit for Foreigners No. 4817 (2003) • Turkish National Action Plan for Asylum and Migration (2005) • Law 5543/2006 on Settlement (2006) • Law 5901/2009 Turkish Citizenship Law (2009) • The Presidency for Turks Abroad and Related Communities (2010) • Syrian refugees migration (2012) • Law 6458/2013 on Foreigners and International Protection (2013) Two-Way Immigration and Turkey, namely before, during and after 2 Emigration Circulation the First World War. The changes and the homogenisation of populations (1923-1950s) were based on a dual pattern: (i) the emigration of non-Muslim populations, The area which today comprises mainly Armenians and Greeks, from the Turkish Republic witnessed Anatolia, and (ii) the immigration of several periods of Turkification and Turkish Muslim populations, especially Islamisation. These changes occurred from the Balkan countries. According to prior to the establishment of modern estimates, about 16 million people were 170 Turkish Migration Policies: A Critical Historical Retrospective living in the region that covers today’s and institutions that were implemented Turkey at the start of the First World on the eve of the foundation of the War, including 13 million Muslims Republic and in the following period. and 3 million non-Muslims.3 Among Examples include the establishment of the 3 million non-Muslims were 1.5 the Ministry of Population Exchange, million Rums, 1.2 million Armenians, Development and Settlement (1923), 128,000 Jews and 176,000 non-Rum the Constitution (1924), the Turkish and non-Armenian Christians.4 These Citizenship Law (1928) and the Law on figures suggest that about 19% of the Settlement (1934). population, or one person in five, Among the social engineering was from the minority groups in the initiatives for Turkifying the population Ottoman population in 1914.5 living in the Turkish Republic were the The state-led emigration of the late administrative