Moving BackMoving Forward? or Moving migration – Return after conflict MAASTRICHT GRADUATE SCHOOL OF GOVERNANCE Moving Back or The Maastricht Graduate School of Governance (MGSoG) was founded in September 2004 at Maastricht University. The mission of the School is to train specialists who combine a high level of academic scholarship with Moving Forward? leadership, in order to strengthen democratic governance in domestic and international organizations, by focusing on policy analysis, risk assessment, policy design, monitoring and evaluation, and methodologies Return migration after conflict and techniques of policy research. MGSoG provides multi-disciplinary top-academic training in the heart of Europe. This is achieved by building on the academic resources of the different faculties at Maastricht University as well as those of several foreign partners. From 2011 onwards, the School has become part of the Marieke van Houte United Nations University, strengthening further its international training and research network while building on the expertise of UNU-MERIT the Maastricht based research institute of the UNU. To guarantee both high academic quality and policy relevance, the MGSoG is closely involved with an extensive academic and professional network, including highly recognized organizations such as the OECD, ILO, UNDP, WB, IMF and EU. Marieke van Houte van Marieke www.boekenplan.nl 48 omslagUM_48-def.indd 1 10/2/2014 6:23:09 PM Moving BackMoving Forward? or Moving migration – Return after conflict MAASTRICHT GRADUATE SCHOOL OF GOVERNANCE Moving Back or The Maastricht Graduate School of Governance (MGSoG) was founded in September 2004 at Maastricht University. The mission of the School is to train specialists who combine a high level of academic scholarship with Moving Forward? leadership, in order to strengthen democratic governance in domestic and international organizations, by focusing on policy analysis, risk assessment, policy design, monitoring and evaluation, and methodologies Return migration after conflict and techniques of policy research. MGSoG provides multi-disciplinary top-academic training in the heart of Europe. This is achieved by building on the academic resources of the different faculties at Maastricht University as well as those of several foreign partners. From 2011 onwards, the School has become part of the Marieke van Houte United Nations University, strengthening further its international training and research network while building on the expertise of UNU-MERIT the Maastricht based research institute of the UNU. To guarantee both high academic quality and policy relevance, the MGSoG is closely involved with an extensive academic and professional network, including highly recognized organizations such as the OECD, ILO, UNDP, WB, IMF and EU. Marieke van Houte van Marieke www.boekenplan.nl 48 omslagUM_48-def.indd 1 10/2/2014 6:23:09 PM Moving Back or Moving Forward? Return migration after conflict Colophon Illustration cover: Kuchi films Figures: Karlijn Driessen Printing: Boekenplan, Maastricht Financial support by Cordaid, PSO and UNU-MERIT is gratefully acknowledged. ISBN: 978 90 8666 349 1 © Marieke van Houte, 2014. All rights reserved. No part of this thesis may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission from the author. Moving Back or Moving Forward? Return migration after conflict Dissertation to obtain the degree of Doctor at Maastricht University, on the authority of the Rector Magnificus, Prof. Dr. L.P.P. Soete in accordance with the decision of the Board of Deans, to be defended in public on Thursday 20 November 2014, at 10.00 hours by Marieke van Houte Supervisor Prof. Dr. Khalid Koser Co-supervisor Dr. Melissa Siegel Assessment Committee Prof. Dr. Ronald Skeldon (chair) Prof. Dr. Jean-Pierre Cassarino, European University Institute Prof. Dr. Hein de Haas Dr. Ceri Oeppen, University of Sussex Contents Figures, tables and appendices 7 Acknowledgements 9 1. Introduction 13 1.1 The rise of return migration as a multi-tool for policy 13 1.2 Research question 22 1.3 Theoretical perspectives on return and development 23 1.4 Outline of thesis 28 1.5 Conclusion 31 2. Methodology 33 2.1 Introduction 33 2.2 Research design: a two-phase study 34 2.3 Research techniques 37 2.4 Methodological challenges and ethical considerations 44 2.5 Conclusion 47 3. Determinants of post-return embeddedness 53 3.1 Introduction 53 3.2 Return migration and embeddedness 55 3.3 Results 59 3.4 Conclusion 69 3.5 Moving forward 71 4. Afghanistan 83 4.1 Why Afghanistan as a case study? 83 4.2 A political history of conflict, migration and return 83 4.3 Afghan migration to Europe 92 4.4 Conclusion 96 5. Meanings of and motivations for return 99 5.1 Introduction 99 5.2 Structure and agency, capacities and desires in return 101 5.3 Structural reality of Afghan conflict and migration 105 5.4 Narratives of return 107 5.5 Discussion and conclusion 112 6. The hierarchization of migration 115 6.1 Introduction 115 6.2 Multidimensional embeddedness 116 6.3 ‘Waves’ of Afghan migration 118 6.4 Voluntary and involuntary return 119 6.5 Discussion 125 6.6 Conclusion 126 7. Love (n)or marriage 129 7.1 Introduction 129 7.2 Marriage, sexuality, gender, migration and change 131 7.3 Discourses of marriage, sexuality and gender 132 7.4 Negotiating love or marriage 134 7.5 Conclusion 142 8. Returnees for change? 145 8.1 Introduction 145 8.2 Return migrants as agents of change? 146 8.3 Challenges of ‘post-conflict’ Afghanistan 149 8.4 Identification with conflict and potential to be agents of change 152 8.5 Conclusion 161 9. Conclusion 165 9.1 Return migrants as agents of change? 165 9.2 Main findings 166 9.3 Conclusion and policy implications 171 References 179 Glossary 193 Valorization 195 Samenvatting (Dutch summary) 199 About the author 207 Figures, tables and appendices Figures 1.1 Return, development and peace-building goals, needs and policies 16 1.2 Organization of thesis 30 3.1 Analytical framework of determinants of multidimensional embeddedness 58 4.1 Annual return to Afghanistan 2002-2013 88 4.2 The Afghan diaspora in 2000/2001 90 5.1 Interplay between structure, agency, desire and capacity 103 9.1 Development potential of and development budget for return migrants 174 9.2 Disentangling return, development and peace-building goals, needs and policies 176 Tables 1.1 Thematic, conceptual, methodological and regional focus of each chapter 29 2.1 Numbers of respondents per country in comparative study 35 2.2 Respondents in Afghan return migration study - Involuntary return migrants 36 2.3 Respondents in Afghan return migration study - Voluntary return migrants 37 2.4 Key informants interviewed in the six countries under study 42 3.1 Reason(s) for migration 60 3.2 Circumstances of return migration 60 3.3 Frequencies of type, source and timing of return assistance 61 3.4 Post-return assistance received by respondents 62 3.5 Embeddedness scores in percentage of respondents 62 3.6 Type of housing pre-migration and post-return 63 3.7 Employment pre-migration and post-return 63 3.8 Determinants of post-return embeddedness across the six countries 67 4.1 Afghan mobility: Afghan IDPs, migrants and return migrants 92 4.2 Total asylum claims of Afghans in 44 industrialized countries 92 5.1 Structures, capacities and desires on each dimension of embeddedness 104 6.1 Types of return migrants in the case study 118 6.2 Circumstances of departure of voluntary and involuntary return migrants 119 6.3 Post-return circumstances of voluntary and involuntary return migrants 121 6.4 Patterns of migration and return 125 7.1 Characteristics of ‘Afghan’ and ‘European’ discourses of marriage 133 7.2 Return motivation, gender and marital status of respondents 134 7.3 Spaces of negotiation based on capacities and desires regarding marriage, 135 sexuality and gender norms 8.1 Assumptions of return migrants’ characteristics, impact and Afghan context 151 Appendices 2.1 Construction of embeddedness in comparative study 48 2.2 Main coding for Afghan return migration study 50 3.1 Regression analysis of comparative study 72 7 Ausländer sind wir alle – fast überall We are all foreigners – almost everywhere German bumper sticker Thuis daar zedde baas Home is where you are in charge Charles van Houte Acknowledgements The journey that eventually led to this thesis started in a packed minivan1 and a rather disorganized encounter with a Bosnian family of return migrants, which provoked a long-standing interest in and respect for returnees’ life stories. I thank Kees Kentin for taking me on that trip and for being an endless source of inspiration. The bumper sticker I peeled off your door reminds me of you and became a personal motto in my work. I realize how much we asked from the participants in this study in six countries across the world, and particularly in Afghanistan, when we simply asked them to tell the story of their life, because these were never easy stories to tell and there were no direct benefits to gain. Thank you for sharing your beautiful, painful, funny and unforgettable stories. I have learned a lot from you along the way and you were the main motivation for completing this thesis. Although I cannot mention your names here, this book is only one way of making sure your voices are heard. I dedicate this thesis to you. My ‘golden’ team of supervisors was the best I could wish for, and truly complementary. Melissa Siegel, I thank you for your trust and for letting me become part of your wonderful team. Once on board, your encouragement and tight deadlines kept me going, while your insistence on clear, structured writing helped me to describe the complexity of migration.