University of Wollongong Research Online University of Wollongong Thesis Collection 1954-2016 University of Wollongong Thesis Collections 1996 Gulf war of 1991 and theories of the press: convergence of objectives in authoritarian and libertarian structures Padmanabhan R. Iyer University of Wollongong Follow this and additional works at: https://ro.uow.edu.au/theses University of Wollongong Copyright Warning You may print or download ONE copy of this document for the purpose of your own research or study. The University does not authorise you to copy, communicate or otherwise make available electronically to any other person any copyright material contained on this site. You are reminded of the following: This work is copyright. Apart from any use permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part of this work may be reproduced by any process, nor may any other exclusive right be exercised, without the permission of the author. 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Recommended Citation Iyer, Padmanabhan R., Gulf war of 1991 and theories of the press: convergence of objectives in authoritarian and libertarian structures, Master of Arts (Hons.) thesis, Graduate School of Journalism, University of Wollongong, 1996. https://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/2255 Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the University of Wollongong. For further information contact the UOW Library: [email protected] GULF WAR OF 1991 AND THEORIES OF THE PRESS CONVERGENCE OF OBJECTIVES IN AUTHORITARIAN AND LIBERTARIAN STRUCTURES A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree MASTER OF ARTS (HONOURS) from UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG by PADMANABHAN R IYER UNIVERSITY O? f WOLLONGO!\;o ; LIBRARY I FACULTY OF CREATIVE ARTS GRADUATE SCHOOL OF JOURNALISM 1996 CERTIFICATION I certify that the work analysed in the study titled "Gulf War of 1991 and theories of the press: convergence of objectives in authoritarian and libertarian structures" is entirely my own work. References to the work of others are indicated in the text. This work has not been submitted for the award of any other degree or diploma at any other university. Padmanabhan R Iyer September 1996 ABSTRACT GULF WAR OF 1991 AND THEORIES OF THE PRESS: CONVERGENCE OF OBJECTIVES IN AUTHORITARIAN AND LIBERTARIAN STRUCTURES This thesis studies an anomalous situation that prevailed during the media coverage of the Gulf War of 1991 when authoritarianism became the norm in the libertarian press. The limited conflict offered journalists representing different press systems an opportunity to work together, gather information, interpret events as they unfolded and narrate a story of global significance. Ideally, the reports emanating from the battlefield ought to have reflected the varying degrees of freedom with which the journalists worked in their countries. Yet this ideal was neither promised nor delivered. Journalists from libertarian and authoritarian backgrounds were reduced to a common denominator, which was determined by the media management policies of the Coalition forces which had set the objectives of the conflict as well as the media coverage of the conflict. The policy of media containment, which was articulated indirectly through the speeches of national leaders, was largely a demonstration of the lessons learnt by the United States during recent limited conflicts. There was an anxiety on the part of the military authorities to keep the media on a leash, leading to the widely perceived equation that a victory for the press would be a defeat for the military, and vice versa. This equation was primarily expressed in the statements by George Bush, who was President of the United States during the conflict. In his speech on January 16, prior to the launch of air strikes against Iraq, President Bush stated that this would "not be another Vietnam" and the military forces "will not be asked to fight with one hand tied behind their back". The implication was clear to the media that controls would be put in place and there would be no "scoops" or stories which would surprise the military. The extent of controls exercised by the military minders of the media resulted in a uniform coverage of the war. The authoritarian and libertarian structures showed a singularity of purpose, which, predictably, coincided with that of the military. Media controls during the Gulf War resembled the peace-time media management policies of authoritarian governments in the sense that the results were intentional. Reports of consequence and the progress of war in the media - libertarian and authoritarian alike - reflected the intentions of the military in much the same way as authoritarian regimes control the flow of information within their nations. This study compares and contrasts, through qualitative and quantitative readings, the coverage of the Gulf War by television and print media. The reporting of Gulf War is analysed in newspapers representing two systems of the press - the authoritarian and the libertarian. The study also observes the limitations of television coverage of the Gulf War. The study notes the convergence of objectives in the media during the conflict as a deliberate effect created by a policy of media management. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study draws on my active role, over 16 years, as a sub-editor, reporter and editor involved in the production of news publications in three countries (India, the United Arab Emirates and Australia), bridging three distinct cultures and political scenarios. Of the many individual contributions to my worldview of journalism, which has led to the current shape and focus of the thesis, I am most indebted to my supervisor Prof Clem Lloyd, Head of the Graduate School of Journalism at the University of Wollongong, who encouraged me and provided the academic direction for the thesis. I am thankful to the management of the Khaleej Times for allowing unhindered access to their library and photocopying machines during my visit to Dubai. My former colleagues at the Khaleej Times - deputy editor Taher Mirza, chief sub-editor T.K.Achuthan, assistant editor Jamil Akhtar, chief reporter Nithin Belle and features editor Ramesh Prabhu - talked to me about their professional experiences during the Gulf War and contributed to the material gathered about the newspaper's war coverage. I am particularly obliged to reporter George Abraham, who shared his observations on covering the Gulf War both in Dubai and in Saudi Arabia. I owe special thanks to Lorraine Lynch, of the Graduate School of Journalism at the University of Wollongong, for assisting me with the page format of the thesis, and to the university library staff for their assistance. I am grateful to my employer - the Illawarra Newspaper Holdings - for their kind understanding of my academic pursuit. This study would not have been possible without the support and suggestions given by my wife, Meeta, and the love, hope and patience of my children, Suma and Shibi. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Aim 11 1.2 Thesis outline 14 1.3 Methodology 15 1.4 Limitations 18 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE SURVEY 20 CHAPTER THREE: BINARY MODE OF UNDERSTANDING THE MEDIA 3.1 Freedom and control 26 3.2 Systemic and individual hmitations 29 3.3 The nature of television 32 3.4 War coverage 35 3.5 Period of experimentation 38 3.6 Denial of access and delay: two weapons 40 3.7 Media management during the Gulf War 44 3.8 The melting point of media freedom 46 CHAPTER FOUR: AUTHORITARIAN PRESS A reading of the Khaleej Times from January 17 to March 1, 1991 4.1 Resources of the Khaleej Times 48 4.2 Working conditions of journalists 49 4.3 Authoritarian press 51 4.4 The Gulf War parallel 56 4.5 News sources of the Khaleej Times 57 4.6 Experts and editorials 58 4.7 Choice of stories, layout, headlines and visuals 64 4.8 Speculative reports 66 4.9 The UAE angle 67 4.10 Media war 70 4.11 The missing bits 71 4.12 From the enemy side 72 4.13 Other states in the region 74 4.14 Bush and Saddam 76 4.15 Local reports 79 4.16 Conclusion 82 CHAPTER FIVE: LIBERTARIAN PRESS A reading of The Sydney Morning Herald from January 17 to March 1, 1991 5.1 Working conditions of journalists 83 5.2 Local news 85 5.3 The ABC controversy 91 5.4 Censorship, propaganda and media reaction 94 5.5 Editorials and experts 102 5.6 Saddam and Bush 108 5.7 Hard news from the warfront 112 CHAPTER SIX: BUSH vs SADDAM Content analysis of 12 days of Gulf War in The Sydney Morning Herald... 116 CHAPTER SEVEN: TELEVISION WAR A study of Australian television channels' coverage of the Gulf War from January 17 to March 1,1991 7.1 Television as a medium 122 12 The television narrative 124 7.3 Local coverage 131 7.4 War action 135 7.5 Saddam, Bush and other leaders 141 7.6 The other side 147 7.7 Censorship and propaganda 152 7.8 Hits and misses 158 CHAPTER 8: WAR OR WAR REACTION? Content analysis of seven days' Gulf War coverage from January 17 to 23 on Australian television channels 9,10 and ABC 8.1 Outline 162 8.2 Methodology 163 8.3 Coding 164 8.4 Findings 167 8.4.1 Organisation of news 167 8A2 Datelines 170 8.4.3 War action visuals 173 8.4.4 News value 176 8.4.5 Tables 178 CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSION 9.1 Authoritarianism within libertarian press 181 92 The Arab press and the libertarian press 185 9.3 The trend is set 188 Selected bibliography 190 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Aim The Gulf War of 1991, which brought together a number of nations led by the United States to oust the Iraqi forces from Kuwait, was a war of claims for and against the media.