WILLINGNESS TO COMMUNICATE AMONG KOREAN LEARNERS OF ENGLISH Peter A. Edwards, MA Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy September 2006 University of Nottingham HaHward Library I{ Acknowledgements With respect, deep gratitude, and relief I acknowledge the numerous people who assisted me in the completion of this dissertation. I must begin with my supervisor, Professor Zoltan Domyei, who over these long years gave me unending guidance and patience, and also warm evenings with his lovely family. Thanks also to my examiners Professors Norbert Schmitt and Richard Johnstone, whose advice helped give final form to this project. Additionally I extend my gratitude to the kind people of Nottingham, especially at the University, who made my time in England unexpectedly pleasant. From Korea I must first thank the citizens of this ancient and modem, proud and tenacious, ceaselessly fascinating culture for their hospitality and for the lasting impact they have had on my life. More specifically, I am indebted to my colleagues and students at Keimyung University, the participants in my research, and countless others who provided scholarly assistance, rich insights, and much moral support. To conclude, I must acknowledge my closest circle: Dr. Jeonghwan Kim, Dr. Shinhye Kim, the Ducks, the Lounge staff, the Symphony of Goddesses, Lily, Cathy, Laura, Sybil, and Heeyeon. My other friends and extended family scattered across the globe, please forgive my not mentioning you each individually, but you all, through many challenges, have taught me that I am never alone. Finally, Mom, Dad, and Sue, you are my life. Peter A. Edwards Daegu, South Korea November, 2006 1 Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................... 11 Part I: Introduction and Literature Review ................................................. 12 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................... 12 1.1 Background of the Dissertation ................................................. 12 The Initial Puzzle ................................................... .12 The Uniqueness of Korea .......................................... 15 Overview of the Research Project ................................. 16 1.2 The Structure of the Dissertation ............................................... 17 Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................. 17 Chapter 2: Windows on Korea .................................... 17 Chapter 3: Willingness to Communicate ........................ 18 Chapter 4: Contact Hypothesis .................................... 18 Chapter 5: Methodology ........................................... 18 Chapter 6: Intercultural Complex ................................. 19 Chapter 7: L 1 Audience Sensitivity .............................. 20 Chapter 8: Summary and Conclusions ........................... 21 Appendices and References ....................................... 21 CHAPTER 2 WINDOWS ON KOREA ..................................................22 2.1 Korea on the Surface ............................................................ 23 Geography .......................................................... 24 Population ..........................................................24 Government ......................................................... 24 Economy ............................................................ 25 Religion .............................................................. 26 Military .............................................................. 27 Historical Background ............................................. 27 2.2 Visitor Perspectives--Desperate or Lucky? .................................. 28 Extremeness ........................................................28 Oneness ............................................................. 29 Accessibility ........................................................ 30 2 Hospitality ............................................................ 31 2.3 Under the Surface of Korea .................................................... 32 2.3.1 Roots of Ambivalence ................................................ 33 The Development of Ethno-Nationalism in Korea ............ 33 The Korean War ................................................... 34 Reunification ............... '" ...................................... 36 2.3.2 Social Forces ........................................................... 36 Kinship and Friendship ............................................ 38 Regret and Ostracism--Han and Wangtta ...................... 38 Social Gaps .......................................................... 39 2.3.3 Communication in Korean .......................................... .44 The Honorific System ............................................. 44 The Korean Perspective on Communication .................. .47 Korean Politeness Strategies ..................................... .49 Chemyon--Korean "Face" in Korean Communication ........ 50 Harmony in Korean Communication ............................ 50 2.4 English in Korea ................................................................. 51 Attitudes toward English ........................................... 53 Konglish ............................................................. 55 2.5 English and the Korean Education System .................................... 57 Confucian Influences ................................................ 57 Overview of Education System ................................... 58 Overview of English in the Korean Education System ........ 58 Primary School, Grades 1-6 ....................................... 63 Secondary School, Grades 7-12 ................................... 64 School Days .......................................................... 64 "E xamlnatlon. M anla." ............................................. " 66 Universities .......................................................... 67 Private Academies and Tutors .................................... 68 The Future of Language Testing .................. '" ............. 69 Conclusion ........................................................... 70 3 CHAPTE1J.h WILLINGNESS TO COMMUNICATE ............................... 71 3.1 The Puzzle of Korean Learners of English ................................... 71 3.2 The Evolution ofWTC ............................................. '" .......... 73 Early Stages in L 1 Communication .............................. 73 WTC as the End and the Way to L2 Learning .................. 73 The Call to Communicative Language Teaching ............... 74 A Pyramid ofWTC Variables .....................................75 Theory of Planned Behavior ....................................... 76 Some Specifics of Foreign Language Learning and Social Support ............................................................... 77 Major WTC Indicators: Perceived Communicative Competence and Communication Apprehension ...............79 WTC Laboratory Studies .......................................... 79 WTC and the Ideal Self............................................ 83 3.3 WTC in China ..................................................................... 84 Confucianism ........................................................ 84 The Other-directed Self and Submissive Learning ............. 84 Desire to vs. Willingness to Communicate ...................... 86 3.4 Japanese WTC .................................................................... 88 Adapting the WTC Model for Japan .............................. 88 International Posture ................................................ 89 The Fit of the Japanese Model .................................... 91 Other Studies on Japan ............................................. 91 3.5 The Korean Context .............................................................. 93 An Autobiographical Study of Success Despite Education ... 93 A Comparative Study of Korean and British Language Learning .............................................................. 95 Security, Excitement, and Responsibility: A Study of Moment- to-Moment WTC .... , ............... , " ............................. 97 "..- Summary .............................. '" ........................... 100 / CHAPTER 4 CONTACT HYPOTHESIS ............................................. 102 The Metaphor of Language Learning and Prejudice ......... l 02 4.1 The Evolution of the Contact Hypothesis ................................... .104 4 Original Conceptualization of the Contact Hypothesis ...... 104 50 Years from Allport to Pettigrew .............................. 107 Allport, the Effect of Contact, 1954 ............................ 107 Group Image Construction ....................................... 108 Attitudes and Beliefs-The Baggage Carried into Contact S·ltuatlons . ............................................................ 109 The Process of Lowering Prejudice ............................. 11 0 The Influence of Anxiety and Hostility ........................ 110 Recategorizing Groups ........................................... 11 0 The Vital Importance of Friendship ............................ 113 Getting beyond, "He's different from the rest of them": The ,.¢-~ Elusiveness of Generalization .................................... 114 "\ ) 4.2 Past Problems, Reformulazation, and Expansion of the Contact ~ . ..... HYPothesis ............................................................................ 115 Friendship