Livelihood vulnerability in Rural Indonesia: Case Study of tobacco growers living in Sumbing-Sindoro Mountainside (SSM) Widiyanto Widiyanto Matrikelnummer: 1519303 DISSERTATION eingereicht im Rahmen des Doktoratsstudiums Geographie i Fakultät für Geo- und Atmosphärenwissenschften an der Leopold-Franzens-Universität Innsbruck Institute für Geographie Innsbruck Betreuer: Univ.-Prof. Dr. Martin Coy Innsbruck, am Juni 2019 ii This page intentionally left blank Eidesstattliche Erklärung Ich erkläre hiermit an Eides Statt durch meine eigenhändige Unterschrift, dass ich die vorliegende Arbeit selbständig verfasst und keine anderen als die angegebenen Quellen und Hilfsmittel verwendet habe. Alle Stellen, die wörtlich oder inhaltlich den angegebenen Quellen entnommen wurden, sind als solche kenntlich gemacht. Die Vorliegende Arbeit wurde bisher in gleicher oder änlicher Form noch nicht als Dissertation eingereicht. Innsbruck, am Juni 2019 Datum Unterschrift iii Table of contents Eidesstattliche Erklärung ....................................................................................... iii Table of contents .................................................................................................... iv List of tables ......................................................................................................... viii List of figures ......................................................................................................... ix List of boxes .......................................................................................................... xv Acknowledgments ................................................................................................ xvi Summary ............................................................................................................ xviii Abbreviations and acronyms ................................................................................ xxi Glossary of the local terms .................................................................................. xxv 1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Research context ......................................................................................... 2 1.2. Problem statement ....................................................................................... 3 1.3. Research objectives ..................................................................................... 5 1.4. The significance of the research .................................................................. 5 1.4.1. Livelihood studies in Indonesia ......................................................... 5 iv 1.4.2. Research on tobacco growers in Indonesia ........................................ 6 1.4.3. The theoretical contributions of the dissertation ................................ 8 1.5. Limitation of the research ........................................................................... 8 1.6. Dissertation organization ............................................................................. 9 2. Theoretical Framework ................................................................................. 13 2.1. Introduction: structure-agency dualism in human geography ................... 14 2.2. The development of livelihood studies ..................................................... 16 2.2.1. From structure and agency to livelihood ......................................... 16 2.2.2. Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SLA) ........................................ 18 2.2.3. SLA under critics ............................................................................. 22 2.3. Livelihood vulnerability ............................................................................ 24 2.4. Bourdieu´s theory of social practice .......................................................... 28 2.4.1. Bourdieu and human geography ...................................................... 28 2.4.2. Historical background of practice theory ......................................... 30 2.4.3. Bourdieu’s theory of social practice: a conceptual framework ....... 33 2.5. Theoretical framework .............................................................................. 41 3. Research Design and Methodology ............................................................... 45 3.1. Introduction: philosophy, theory, and methods ......................................... 46 3.2. Research approach ..................................................................................... 46 3.2.1. Qualitative approach ........................................................................ 46 3.2.2. Case study ........................................................................................ 47 3.3. Research structures .................................................................................... 48 3.3.1. Research site .................................................................................... 48 3.3.2. Villages selection ............................................................................. 49 3.3.3. Research steps .................................................................................. 49 3.4. Data collection and methods ..................................................................... 50 3.4.1. Primary data ..................................................................................... 50 3.4.1.1. Interviews .......................................................................... 50 3.4.1.2. Focus group discussion ...................................................... 52 3.4.1.3. Participant observation ...................................................... 53 3.4.2. Secondary data ................................................................................. 55 3.5. Validity and data analysis ......................................................................... 56 3.5.1. Validity ............................................................................................ 56 v 3.5.2. Qualitative data analysis .................................................................. 57 4. The Case Study Area ...................................................................................... 61 4.1. General Overview ..................................................................................... 62 4.2. Population .................................................................................................. 68 4.3. Education ................................................................................................... 70 4.4. Land use .................................................................................................... 71 4.5. Agriculture ................................................................................................ 74 4.6. Tobacco growers’ characteristics .............................................................. 82 4.6.1. Tobacco grower: peasant, farmer, or peasant farmer? ..................... 82 4.6.2. Family household characteristics ..................................................... 86 4.7. Poverty ...................................................................................................... 89 4.8. Resume: general characteristics of the research focused villages ............. 92 5. Tobacco in Indonesia: History and Figures .................................................. 95 5.1. Tobacco history ......................................................................................... 96 5.1.1. Tobacco origin ................................................................................. 96 5.1.2. Tobacco history in Indonesia ........................................................... 97 5.2. Tobacco growing in Indonesia ................................................................ 100 5.2.1. The position of Indonesian tobacco at the global level ................. 100 5.2.2. Tobacco production ....................................................................... 101 5.2.3. Tobacco diversity .......................................................................... 109 5.2.4. Tobacco export and import ........................................................... 111 5.3. Cigarette manufacturers .......................................................................... 115 5.3.1. The origin of kretek ....................................................................... 115 5.3.2. The development of kretek cigarette ............................................. 117 5.4. Tobacco growing and government income ............................................. 119 5.5. Tobacco cultivation and production in Sumbing-Sindoro Mountainside (SSM) ...................................................................................................... 123 5.5.1. The origin of tobacco in SSM: a folklore and myths ..................... 123 5.5.2. Tobacco production ....................................................................... 128 5.5.2.1. Harvested areas ................................................................ 128 5.5.2.2. Tobacco production and productivity .............................. 130 5.5.2.3. Tobacco farmers .............................................................. 132 6. Rise, Fall, and Challenges of Tobacco Growing in SSM .......................... 135 vi 6.1. The golden era of tobacco ....................................................................... 136 6.2. The fall of tobacco: price decline and the high cost of tobacco .............