The development of Irish identity: political aspirations and literary conceptions, 600–919 Brendan Meighan Submitted for the degree of PhD University of Dublin June 2020 i Declaration I declare that this thesis has not been submitted as an exercise for a degree at this or any other university and it is entirely my own work. I agree to deposit this thesis in the University’s open access institutional repository or allow the Library to do so on my behalf, subject to Irish Copyright Legislation and Trinity College Library conditions of use and acknowledgement. ______________________________________ Brendan Meighan ii Summary This thesis examines the development of an Irish identity in the early medieval period. It covers roughly three centuries, from 600 to 919, and it focuses for the most part on the formation of an Irish political identity, as expressed most clearly in the idea of a kingship of all-Ireland. It also explores more general questions of identity in Ireland at this time, with specific reference to the complex relationship between ‘Irishness’ and ‘Gaelicness’. In Chapter I it shows, based on an analysis of Old Irish and Latin literary works, that the idea of a common identity centred on co-habitation of the island of Ireland dates back at least to the time of Columbanus, and a king of Ireland figure, who was to rule over these people, was being envisioned from at least as early as the seventh century, as seen for example in the works of Adomnán. But this king of Ireland was not just limited to works of literature, and the title was given to contemporary kings like Loingsech mac Óengusso, who more than likely was aware of the designation and approved of its usage. The conception of an all- Ireland polity was expressed in the ecclesiastical sphere as well, with both Kildare and Armagh claiming an archbishopric which extended over the entire island in works that have also been dated to this formative century. Contrary to popular belief however, the latter church did not create the idea of a kingship of Ireland as this conception can be found in numerous sources of varying regional provenance, sources that are probably contemporaneous with – if not older than – the earliest works that we possess from Armagh, and as such show that the idea of an Irish political identity was widely diffused from an early stage. Despite a 160 year gap in AU between the acclamations of Loingsech mac Óengusso and Máel Sechnaill as kings of Ireland, writers and rulers alike continued to be influenced by this conception, and some of the latter quite possibly sought to iii exercise power on an all-Ireland basis, a suggestion more fully explored in Chapter II. Carolingian sources are also analysed in this chapter and this thesis suggests that this material, which has been largely ignored by Irish political historians, sheds much light on the political affairs and international standing of Ireland’s most powerful kings. It is argued in Chapter III that the Vikings had a profound impact on Irish self-perception, and the permanent settlements they established precipitated a move away from geographically- based terms of ethnic identity like fir Érenn and towards words like Goídil , which had initially been a linguistic term. However, the meaning of Goídil was transformed in this period, becoming one half of an ethnic dichotomy and contrasted with Gaill , the term applied to the Viking incomers, and, after 1169, to English settlers. This testifies to the longevity and evident popularity of this binary division, which persisted in the minds of the literati despite centuries of intermarriage and assimilation across this ethnic divide. However, despite this shift in terminology towards Goídil , the term fir Érenn was still used to describe the Irish political community, which was still envisioned as being led by a king of Ireland. Indeed, this position also appears to have taken on a newfound sense of purpose in the face of the Viking threat and was not superseded by the idea of an all-encompassing Gaelic political identity which straddled the North Channel. Instead, the continued existence of the kingship of Ireland as the apical political office on the island, it is argued, shows that the shift towards more Gaelic-based terms of identity was not primarily concerned with affirming and reinforcing the close cultural ties between the British and Irish Goídil , but was instead aimed mainly at an Irish audience, being in many cases geared specifically to reinforce a distinctively Gaelic sense of ‘Irishness’ in the face of the new predominantly Scandinavian culture brought by the Vikings. This can be seen most clearly in the explosion of origin myth material that was being written in iv Ireland at this time, a genre that was almost exclusively concerned with the affairs of the island of Ireland and its successive waves of invaders, which culminated in its final settlement by the ancestors of the Goídil . This scheme thus refused to recognise the recent Viking settlements as legitimate and viewed the Gaelic settlement of Britain as only of secondary interest. Therefore, this thesis suggests the existence of an imaginary barrier not only between the Goídil and the Gaill , but also to a degree between the two halves of Gaeldom, which even as far back as Adomnán’s time had been clearly demarcated from each other. Despite their shared cultural and genealogical horizons, they subscribed to different geographically based political identities, a division which has persisted through to the modern era. v Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Seán Duffy, for all of his help, support and suggestions over the previous four years, without which I would never even have begun this project. I would also like to gratefully acknowledge the support I received from the Trinity College School of Histories and Humanities, who generously gave me a Postgraduate Research Studentship, which made the last two years of study considerably easier to bear financially. A great many established academics also took the time to discuss ideas with me, and this thesis is in many ways in their debt. This is especially true of Prof. Damian McManus, Dr Bríd McGrath, Dr Eoin Mac Cárthaigh, Dr Immo Warntjes, Dr Peter Crooks, Dr David Ditchburn, Dr Margaret Desmond, Dr Roy Flechner, Dr Colin Ireland and Professor Katharine Simms, whose support and friendliness was and is greatly appreciated. Another great source of inspiration has been the Medieval History Research Centre, especially the wit and wisdom of Eoghan Keane, Dr Lynn Kilgallon, Dr Stephen Hewer, Níall Ó Súilleabháin, Dr Ronan Mulhaire, John Tighe and Michel Summer. In addition, the assistance of Christian Schweizer with translations of German-language scholarship was of great assistance, as was discussion with Carlo Cedro on the Letters of Columbanus. To everyone else who is not mentioned here, please know that you have been of no less support to the completion of this thesis, especially those pub regulars among you! vi I would also like to acknowledge the significant debt – both physical and metaphorical – I owe my parents, Joe and Clare, who very generously funded the first two years of study and without which I would have been unable to continue in higher education. Lastly, but by no means least, I would like to thank Hannah Browning, whose unstinting support over the last four years has been nothing short of extraordinary. This thesis is dedicated to her. vii Contents List of Abbreviations and Conventions………………………… xi Introduction .................................................................................1 Chapter I: The growth of Irish identity: 600–704 Section 1: The Church and the early evidence for Irish identity Section 1.1: Columbanus……………………………………….27 Section 1.2: Fursa………………………………………………38 Section 1.3: The Easter Controversy…………………………...44 Section 2: Irish identity in late seventh-century hagiography Section 2.1: Cogitosus………………………………………….48 Section 2.2: The Liber Angeli …………………………………..50 Section 2.3: Tírechán and Muirchú…………………………….52 Section 2.4: The Northumbrian Invasion of Brega…………….59 Section 2.5: The representation of the king of Tara in Tírechán and Muirchú……………………………………………………64 Section 2.6: Irish identity in vernacular texts…………………..72 Section 3: Irish identity in the law-tracts Section 3.1: Senchas Már ………………………………………75 Section 3.2: The kingship of Ireland in non-SM tracts…………82 Section 3.3: The Féni…………………………………………...85 Section 4: The career and writings of Adomnán Section 4.1: Extranei in the Vita Sancti Columbae …………….95 Section 4.2: Adomnán’s usage of terminology……………….102 Section 4.3: Adomnán’s ideology of kingship………………..106 viii Chapter II: the persistence of Irish identity: 704–847 Section 1: Irish kings and Irish identity part I: 704–797 Section 1.1: Congal Cenn Magair and Fergal mac Maíle Dúin…………………………………………………………...117 Section 1.2: Flaithbertach mac Loingsig……………………...122 Section 1.3: Áed Allán………………………………………..125 Section 1.4: Domnall Midi……………………………………129 Section 1.5: Níall Frosach and Donnchad Midi………………132 Section 2: The Vikings in early ninth-century Ireland Section 2.1: The first Viking raids……………………………138 Section 2.2: Viking activity elsewhere in Europe…………….146 Section 2.3: The Vikings in ninth-century Ireland: conclusion……………………………………………………..149 Section 3: Irish kings and Irish identity part II: 797–847 Section 3.1: Áed Oirnide……………………………………...150 Section 3.2: Conchobor of Mide and Feidlimid mac Crimthainn.................................................................................156 Section 3.3: Feidlimid and Níall Caille……………………….160 Section 4: Irish kings in Carolingian sources: c. 790–847 Section 4.1: Einhard’s Vita Karoli Magni .................................167 Section 4.2: Ireland in the Letters of Alcuin………………….170 Section 4.3: Ireland in early ninth-century Carolingian sources………………………………………………………...176 Section 4.4: The evidence of ordination………………………178 Section 5: Irish identity in Irish literature part I: c.