INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES AND INTER-STATE RELATIONS IN THE NILE BASIN by TALAAT AHMED IBRAHIM A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Oriental and African Studies University of London May 1984 ProQuest Number: 10672889 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10672889 Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 2 ABSTRACT The thesis examines the international boundaries of the Nile Basin and discusses them in the context of inter-state cooperation. The first aim of the study is to decide how far the boundaries have or have not been responsible for any difficulties in relations between the various states. This question is a central one in political geography. Many writers have noted that the rapid and arbitrary nature of boundary- making by European colonial powers in Africa has left independent African states with serious and intractable problems associated with their unsatisfactory colonial boundaries, drawn up with little or no reference to the geographical realities - both physical and human - in an area. While some writers suggest that the international boundaries can actually cause inter-state conflict - others argue that such conflict is unlikely ever to result from the nature of the boundary itself. The present study aims to examine the evidence about this issue in a specific geographical area in Africa r the Nile Basin - where the circumstances, both physical and human, surrounding the international boundaries are very varied and where there are several classic instances of so-called 'bad1 boundaries which ignore natural and human considerations and so create tension between states. The second aim of the thesis is to place the evidence and conclusions about the significance of international boundaries in the context of inter-state relations and cooperation in the Nile Basin. How can governments ensure that their boundaries function solely as the territorial limits of administration and not as barriers to all movement and contact between states? This question is examined with reference to attempts at inter-state cooperation for the use of the Nile waters and, more generally, within the context of regional and supra-regional organizations, notably the Organization of African Unity. 3 'aghlab al-duwal al-jadida qahilat al-hudud al-lati faradaha Tl-istiCmar, wa-tamassakat biha ka-ma law kanat irthan muqaddasan, al-amr al-ladhi a ta ’l-a€da’ al-fursa li'ttiham al-wataniyyac fiha bi-annaha la^sat akthar min mujarrad radd fi 1 li'l-isti mar la'nbithaqan tabi iyyian hamimank Translation: 'Most of the new states accepted the boundaries imposed by colonialism, and they hold them as if they were a sacred heritage. This enables their enemies to accuse them of the kind of patriotism that is no more than a mere reaction to colonialism and not a natural and sincere emergence of national feeling'. Hamdan, G., istirhtijiyyat al-istl cmar wa'1-tahrir, Cairo, 1983, pp.240-41. 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT S I am grateful to my supervisor Professor B,W. Rodder, to whom I am greatly indebted for his guidance and encouragement during my study. I must also thank Dr J.A. Allan of the Department of Geography at SOAS for his advice. I am also indebted to numerous Egyptian colleagues and officials who have made it possible for me to under­ take this task, Mrs Mary O ’Shea kindly undertook the typing of the manuscript and I am grateful to her for her patience. The maps have been drawn by Miss Elizabeth Johnson and I wish to express my thanks to her. I should also like to express my deepest gratitude to my family and to all my friends for their constant encouragement. 5 CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 4 INTRODUCTION 9 CHAPTER ONE Some Conceptual Issues 14 CHAPTER TWO Relevant Geographical Eeatures 40 CHAPTER THREE The International Boundaries 56 CHAPTER FOUR The Evidence and Hypothesis 112 Re-Examined CHAPTER FIVE The Nile Waters and Cooperation 134 CHAPTER SIX International Boundaries and 153 Cooperation CONCLUSIONS 173 BIBLIOGRAPHY 177 APPENDICES 185 6 FIGURES Figure Number Page 1 Butalinga and Bwamba 35 2 The Nile Basin - Relief and Drainage 39 3 Climatic Data for Selected Stations 41 4 Major Ethnic Divisions 44 5 History of European Contact 48 6 Egypt-Sudan Boundary 55 7 Sudan-Ethiopia Boundary 64 8 Sudan-Uganda Boundary 69 9 Sudan-Kenya Boundary 72 10 Sudan-Zaire Boundary 75 11 Uganda-Kenya Boundary 77 12 Uganda-Kenya Boundary (2) 81 13 Uganda-Kenya Boundary - Tribal Groups 82 14 Uganda-Zaire Boundary 86 15 Uganda-Tanzania Boundary 90 16 Kenya-Tanzania Boundary 95 17 Kenya-Tanzania Boundary - Tribal Groups 97 18 Tanzania-Rwanda Boundary 101 19 Tanzania-Burundi Boundary 103 20 Rwanda-Burundi Boundary 106 21 Uganda-Rwanda Boundary 108 22 The Nile Basin - Water Elements 135 7 DIAGRAMS Diagram Number Page oj Model of Geographical Effects of Boundary 31 2 Contrasting models at a Boundary 131 3 Diagram of Major Nile Projects 136 8 TABLES Table Number Page 1 List of Tribes cut by Boundaries 2 9 2 Length and Status of Boundaries ^2 2 Nile Basin States: Areas and Populations 54 4 Access Routes for Land-Locked States 155 9 INTRODUCTION Aims of Thesis This thesis examines the international boundaries that occur within the Nile Basin and discusses them in the context of inter­ state cooperation. The first aim of the study is to decide how far they have or have not been responsible for any difficulties in relations between the various states. This question is a central one in political geography. Many writers have noted that the rapid and arbitrary nature of boundary-making by European colonial powers in Africa has left independent African states with serious and intractable problems associated with their unsatisfactory colonial boundaries, drawn up with little or no reference to the geographical realities - both physical and human - in an area. Associated with this view is the belief that international boundaries are always intrinsically critical phenomena of central significance to inter-state relations. On the other hand, some writers argue that the cause of any problems that have arisen or are likely to arise between African states is rarely, if ever, the nature of the international boundary itself. This view suggests that an international boundary is simply the 1 frame' of a state and, by itself, is unlikely ever to be the cause of inter-state friction: that all such friction is caused by much more fundamental differences of opinion between nations. The present study aims to examine the evidence about this issue in a specific geographical area in Africa - the Nile Basin - where the circumstances, both physical and human, surrounding the international boundaries are very varied and where there appear to be blatant examples of 'bad* boundaries which ignore natural and human considerations and so create tension between states. 10 The second aim of the thesis is to place the evidence and conclusions about the significance of international boundaries in the context of inter-state relations and cooperation in the Nile Basin* If it is true that the international boundaries are not by themselves major causes of interstate friction, is it possible to suggest that these boundaries can be used as bases for inter-state cooperation? How can governments ensure that boundaries between their states function solely as the territorial limits of administration and not as barriers to all movement and contact between states? These questions are examined with reference to attempts at inter-state cooperation for the allocation and utilisation of the Nile waters and, more generally, within the context of regional and supra-regional organizations, notably the Organization of African Unity* This thesis does not claim originality in the sense of presenting many new facts. From the nature of the material this would have involved a careful examination of the historical evidence, sifting through the primary sources relating to the allocation, delimitation and demarcation of the specific international boundaries - something that has been done, mostly very adequately, by other scholars, particularly historians* Rather is the present study concerned to attempt an original interpretation of facts that are already known. This seems especially relevant at a time when the gap between the perception of European scholars and the perception of African peoples themselves is so wide. While European analysts still focus on the negative effects of the international boundaries they imposed on African societies - and a sense of guilt or a particular political ideological stance are common causes of this ♦European* view - the view of most Africans, expressed so eloquently through the Organization of African Unity, is much more positive and realistic: that the boundaries exist and can and must be made to work by independent African governments. 11 Sources The bibliography at the end of this thesis contains all the written (English and Arabic) sources used in the study# Primary sources of particular importance to the discussion are best consulted in Hertslet (1909 and 196?) and Brownlie (1979)* Maps have been taken from various sources, the most important and easily available being found in Hertslet, Brownlie and McEwen (1971)* As for the distribution and classification of ethnic, tribal, ethno-linguistic or linguistic groups in relation to the international boundaries, several sources have been used and cited where appropriate.