Copyright by Samori Sekou Camara 2011 The Dissertation Committee for Samori Sekou Camara certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: “There are Some Bad Brothers and Sisters in New Orleans:” The Black Power Movement in the Crescent City from 1964-1977 Committee: ________________________ Leonard Moore, Supervisor ________________________ Juliet E. K. Walker ________________________ H. W. Brands ________________________ Louis Harrison ________________________ Troy Allen “There are Some Bad Brothers and Sisters in New Orleans:” The Black Power Movement in the Crescent City from 1964-1977 by Samori Sekou Camara, B.S.; M.A.Lib.Arts Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin December 2011 Acknowledgements First, I would like to thank the Creator, Asase Yaa (Mother Earth), my ancestors, and those yet unborn for the continued support during good and bad times in this process. I owe my deepest gratitude to family, especially my mother, Roberta Lewis, and sister, Virginia Lewis, for always being supportive and proud of their only son and brother. Thanks to both, Donald Hamilton and Brian Clark. I continue to honor you. I owe a debt of gratitude to the people at the University of Texas at Austin. I am grateful to my advisor, Leonard Moore, who saw in me a student, brother, and mentee worth having. Thanks for all your words of encouragement, inspiration, and battles along the way. They have made me a better man in ways you would not believe. I would also like to thank the rest of my committee: Juliet E. K. Walker, H. W. Brands, Louis Harrison, and Troy Allen. Dr. Walker was a sincere support and inspiring symbol of a scholar in my days in Austin. Dr. Brands helped me became a better writer and historian. Dr. Harrison taught me much about the connection between race and sport. Dr. Allen, what can a say? You were a great basketball buddy and professor. I am forever grateful to for giving me that book list of all those Black classics, which helped shape my consciousness and worldview. Also, I would like to thank Merilyn Lehman in the iv History department. Thanks for always answering my questions and helping me navigate this process. When I first stepped onto campus, the Center for African and African American Studies became my second-home and nurtured my soul in a new environment. I want to thank all of the staff and all of the friends I met in that sacred place, especially Mrs. Brenda Burt. In addition to the center, several friends at the University of Texas made graduate school a memorable experience: Adam “Zulu Sauve” Williams, Sade “Soul Sistah” Jones, Jeremy Anato-Mensah, Monique Ribeiro, and Amari Johnson. I give special thanks to Amari and Adam who always pushed me to be a better Afrikan man and scholar. Thanks for being there when I needed to vent, talk, laugh, or strategize. I am indebted to all my warrior scholars and warrior teachers, Mama Abena and Mama Kendra, at Kamali Academy in New Orleans. Thank you guys for keeping me grounded and motivated to walk in the way of our ancestors. You are the reason I rise in the morning and the reason I stay up at night. I love every one of you. Again, I thank all of those who have believed in me, inspired me, and supported me. Without all of you, I would not be where I am and go where I am going. If I am strong, it is because you strengthen me. If I am wise, it is because you taught me. Indeed, I am because we are. v “There are Some Bad Brothers and Sisters in New Orleans:” The Black Power Movement in the Crescent City from 1964-1977 Samori Sekou Camara, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Austin, 2011 Supervisor: Leonard N. Moore This is a study of the manifestations and permutations of the Black Power era principles and ideologies in New Orleans from the mid-1960s to the late 1970s. By highlighting little-known and often neglected groups along with popular organizations, this work illuminates how these groups shaped and rethought the their objectives and tactics in the contested terrain of post-Civil Rights New Orleans. Making extensive use of archival resources, newspaper articles, memoirs, interviews, and secondary literature, “There are Some Bad Brothers and Sisters in New Orleans” focuses on the ways in which disparate organizations, groups, and individuals, wrestling with the highly fluid idea of Black Power, attempted to refashion the political and cultural landscape of the Crescent City. This vi dissertation contributes a more nuanced analysis of this famous city and continues the recent surge in Black Power Studies that emphasizes local examples of Black Power. This work tells the story of New Orleans; of shootouts and showdowns; liberation theater and war helicopters; schools and southern political rules. The central objective of this study is to provide a more complete and in- depth look at the major themes (Cultural Nationalism, Revolutionary Nationalism, Black Arts, student movements, political power, and independent education) of the Black Power era by calling attention to its distinctive but informative examples nurtured in the incomparable city of New Orleans. This dissertation argues that the roots of Black Power in New Orleans were shattered, disparate, and ad-hoc in nature. As such, its thrust failed to bear the social, cultural, economic, and political fruit hoped for by its advocates. vii “There are Some Bad Brothers and Sisters in New Orleans:” The Black Power Movement in the Crescent City from 1964-1977 Table of Contents: Introduction............................................................................................. 1 Chapter 1: “To Wake the People Up:” The Free Southern Theater and the Origins of the Black Arts Movement........................................................... 50 Chapter 2: “A Relevant School that Meets the Needs of Black People:” New Orleans, The Student Movement, and the Battle for Black Studies ................................................ 81 Chapter 3: “Among the People Like Fish in a Sea:” The Black Panther Party and the Crescent City..................................................... 113 Chapter 4: “By the Grace of Malcolm, I Am a New African:” Mark Essex, Black Power and the Politics of Racial Violence........................................................................... 143 Chapter 5: “To Build An Alternative Institution:” Ahidiana and the Politics of Black Cultural Nationalism and Education in the Urban South .................. 178 Chapter 6: “Traitors to Your Own Women and Children:” The Tragic Failure of Black Political Power .......................... 209 Conclusion ........................................................................................... 236 Bibliography........................................................................................ 246 Vita ........................................................................................................ 262 viii Introduction This is a study of the manifestations and permutations of the Black Power era principles and ideologies in New Orleans from 1964 to 1977. By highlighting little- known and often neglected groups along with popular organizations, this work illuminates how these groups shaped and rethought their objectives and tactics in the contested terrain of post-Civil Rights New Orleans. The study focuses on the ways in which disparate organizations, groups, and individuals, wrestling with the highly fluid idea of Black Power, attempted to refashion the political and cultural landscape of the Crescent City. The image of New Orleans cultivated by the economic elite presents a seemingly happy place. The city’s nickname, “Big Easy,” conjures images of Mardi Gras, delicious food, and a non-stop party atmosphere. This image, however, describes only half the story. This dissertation contributes a more nuanced analysis of this famous city. This work tells the story of shootouts and showdowns; liberation theater and war helicopters; schools and southern political rules. The central objective of this study is to provide a more complete and in-depth look at the major themes (Cultural Nationalism, Revolutionary Nationalism, Black Arts, student movements, political power, and independent education) of the Black Power era by calling attention to its distinctive but informative examples nurtured in the incomparable city of New Orleans. New Orleans is not only important because it is the oldest Black urban community in the country, but because it is neither explicitly southern nor northern. It is New Orleans, the most unique and, arguably, the most African city in the country. 1 Adding the topic of Black Power to the city’s deeply rooted class and color dynamics ensures a compelling story brimming with conflict and intrigue. The title of this dissertation is borrowed from the cult-classic film, The Spook Who Sat by the Door, which was written and directed by Sam Greenlee in 1973. As the main character, Dan Freeman, strategizes to organize Blacks outside of Chicago for revolution, he mentions New Orleans to which another character responds, “There are some bad brothers in New Orleans.” This quote is used to highlight the attitude towards New Orleans during the Black Power era and as play on the word “bad.” Bad, in the context of the film, meant ready to fight for the liberation of all African-descended people in America. In this dissertation, it certainly