Smuggling of Migrants A Global Review and Annotated Bibliography of Recent Publications This publication is made possible through funding received from the European Union. UNITED NATIONS OFFICE ON DRUGS AND CRIME Vienna Smuggling of Migrants A Global Review and Annotated Bibliography of Recent Publications UNITED NATIONS New York, 2011 © United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, January 2011. The description and classification of countries and territories in this study and the arrangement of the material do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries, or regarding its economic system or degree of development. Publishing production: UNOV/Dm/CmS/ePlS Acknowledgements The text of the present publication was drafted by Daphné Bouteillet-Paquet. The author would like to thank Katherine Rogers for her invaluable help in researching academic sources. Special gratitude is extended to Sebastian Baumeister, michael Jandl, marika mcAdam, morgane Nicot and Fabrizio Sarrica for their valuable contributions to the present work. iii Abbreviations and acronyms AIC Australian Institute of Criminology CRS Congressional Research Service EU european Union Europol European Police Office Frontex European Agency for the management of Operational Cooperation at the external Borders of the member States of the european Union GAO United States Government Accountability Office ICmPD International Centre for migration Policy Development INTeRPOl International Criminal Police Organization IOm International Organization for migration NGO non-governmental organization UNHCR Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNICRI United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime iv Contents Page 1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1 2. Conceptual challenges ......................................................................................................... 5 2.1 Smuggling of migrants and the concepts of irregular migration and trafficking in persons ........................................................................................................................ 5 2.1.1 Irregular migration ......................................................................................... 5 2.1.2 Trafficking in persons ..................................................................................... 5 2.2 Conceptualization of smuggling of migrants ............................................................ 7 2.2.1 Smuggling as an illegal migration business................................................... 7 2.2.2 Smuggling as a security threat (organized crime)......................................... 9 2.2.3 Smuggling as a family business ..................................................................... 10 2.3 Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 11 3. Methodology applied for researching smuggling of migrants ............................................ 13 3.1 Statistical methodologies ............................................................................................ 13 3.2 Qualitative methodologies ......................................................................................... 15 3.2.1 Interviews with smuggled migrants ............................................................... 15 3.2.2 Interviews with smugglers.............................................................................. 16 3.2.3 Other sources ................................................................................................. 17 3.3 Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 18 4. The scope of smuggling of migrants ................................................................................... 19 4.1 Quantitative assessment by region ............................................................................ 19 4.1.1 Europe ............................................................................................................ 19 4.1.2 Africa .............................................................................................................. 24 4.1.3 Americas ......................................................................................................... 27 4.1.4 Asia ................................................................................................................. 30 4.2 Overview of migrant-smuggling routes ..................................................................... 31 4.2.1 Migrant-smuggling routes from the perspective of the destination countries 31 4.2.2 Migrant-smuggling routes from the perspective of the source and transit countries .......................................................................................................... 34 4.3 Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 36 5. Profiles of smuggled migrants ............................................................................................. 39 5.1 General profile of smuggled migrants ....................................................................... 39 5.1.1 Social and educational background ............................................................... 39 5.1.2 The role of the smuggled migrant in the smuggling process ....................... 40 5.1.3 Vulnerable migrants........................................................................................ 42 v Page 5.2 Profiles of migrants: a regional perspective ............................................................... 45 5.2.1 Europe ............................................................................................................ 45 5.2.2 Africa .............................................................................................................. 48 5.2.3 Americas ......................................................................................................... 51 5.2.4 Asia ................................................................................................................. 53 5.3 Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 54 6. Profiles of smugglers of migrants ........................................................................................ 55 6.1 Methodology applied for researching smugglers’ profile........................................... 55 6.2 Profile of smugglers: a regional perspective .............................................................. 56 6.2.1 Europe ............................................................................................................ 56 6.2.2 Africa .............................................................................................................. 58 6.2.3 Americas ......................................................................................................... 59 6.2.4 Asia ................................................................................................................. 60 6.3 Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 61 7. Smuggler-migrant relationships ........................................................................................... 63 7.1 General overview ........................................................................................................ 63 7.2 Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 65 8. Organizational structures of smuggling networks ............................................................... 67 8.1 General analysis of organizational structures of smuggling networks...................... 67 8.1.1 Typology of structures .................................................................................... 67 8.1.2 Typologies of actors involved ......................................................................... 69 8.2 Organizational structure of smuggling networks: a regional perspective ................. 71 8.2.1 Europe ............................................................................................................ 71 8.2.2 Africa .............................................................................................................. 74 8.2.3 Americas ......................................................................................................... 77 8.2.4 Asia ................................................................................................................. 79 8.3 Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 80 9. Modus operandi and smuggling fees .................................................................................. 83 9.1 General overview ........................................................................................................ 83 9.1.1 Typology of modi operandi ........................................................................... 83 9.1.2