ON WHITE MEN’S REPRESENTATIONS OF ‘RACE’, WHITENESS, MASCULINITIES AND ‘OTHERNESS’: A CRITICAL RACE STUDY OF MEN’S MAGAZINES, RACIALISATION AND ATHLETIC BODIES STEFAN LAWRENCE A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF LEEDS METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY, FOR THE DEGREE DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY January 2013 Acknowledgements I would like to thank all of those people who have helped me over the last three years or so. That is because the following thesis is much more than an attempt to fulfil the requirements of a PhD and has turned out to be symbolic of a journey, both intellectual and emotional, which has helped me grow and develop as an academic and as a person. Along my journey numerous people have supported me, both to reach the point at which I started and the stage I am at now, and for that I will be eternally grateful. The various kind words, wise words, intellectually stimulating words and sometimes uncompromising words, I have been given along the way have made the journey somewhat ‘easier’. Firstly, I would like to thank my family for their unwavering love, support and encouragement. Whenever the demands of a PhD have gotten too much you’ve always been at the end of the phone for me and have always welcomed me back home if I’ve ever needed it. The emotional support you’ve provided is just as valuable, if not more so at particular times, as any other resource I’ve needed to call upon throughout the past three years. I hope I will have the chance to repay you, one day. Secondly, I genuinely could not have asked for two better supervisors. Kevin and Jonathan, I can’t thank you enough for your time, patience, guidance and inspiration. You’ve always made time for me, despite your busy work and home lives, and because of that I’ve always felt respected and supported. It has been a real privilege to be able to work with two such well respected academics and, more importantly, genuinely good people. I hope one day to be able to offer PhD candidates the same level of care that you have given to me. As well as my supervisors, I’d also like to thank all those other members of the Carnegie faculty, form those who have smiled at me in the hallway, and politely enquired about my studies, to those that have had to endure considerably longer conversations about my thesis. In particular, Aarti, Scarlett, Milton and Te-Fang, PhD life without you would not have been the same. Lastly, I would like to thank all of my participants for their time and their willingness and openness when discussing sensitive issues with me. They have played a central role in the production of this thesis but have also helped me to see and experience the world in ways I had never considered before this study. After hours and hours and yet more hours of writing and philosophising, they remind me of why it is I love to do research. ii iii Student Declaration By signing this form, I hereby confirm that this thesis is my own work. The thesis, or any part thereof, has not been previously submitted for any degree or comparable award. Candidate Signature: Date: iv v Abstract This thesis (1) explores the racialised aspects of media representations of athletic bodies in purposefully selected British men’s magazines; and (2) considers how these images influence white men’s perceptions of their own racialised and gendered identities and those of Others. The rationale for a study of this nature emerged from a reading of much recent literature which has suggested that black male athletic bodies, in particular, have become ever more ordinary features of contemporary sport and leisure media. Liberal commentaries have argued that many subjugated racialised social groups have utilised sporting and leisure stages in order to challenge the fallacies of psychological and biological inferiority propagated historically by patriarchal and bio-racist discourses. Thus, while Black women remain underrepresented in media spaces, images of their male counterparts, particularly those of African-Caribbean heritage, have accessed the realm of the popular en masse and have acquired almost superhuman status in late modern times. However, while some uncritical commentaries equate visibility with social progress and improvement, this thesis explores the nature of media representations of Black male bodies more critically and also illuminates the racialised aspects and privileges of the often invisible sporting body, the white male athlete. In order to do this Critical Race Theory (CRT) and elements of poststructuralist theory, were employed together as a theoretical framework that guided: (a) a semiotic analysis of the racialised aspects of male athletic bodies in British men’s magazines (Men’s Health, Sport and Jump); (b) observations of white men in gyms and while doing parkour; and (c) semi-structured interviews with physically active white men and the racialised and gendered aspects of their readings of media images of male bodies. Adopting a CRT approach to media analysis centres ‘race’, racism and whiteness while addressing the colour-blindness of previous studies of men’s magazines. The study highlights the importance of studying white male athletic bodies and masculinities while implicating them in perpetuating racialised processes in sport and leisure arenas. That is, this study argues that media representations of athletic bodies and masculinities contribute to a white male supremacist discourse and therefore must not be read in isolation from processes of racialisation. The thesis contends that, paradoxically, it is imperative to centralise white masculinities and make visible their privileges, assumptions and predilections, in order to distort and highlight white male supremacy. This is particularly important considering the frequency with which these discourses are made invisible by liberal academic and media institutions. vi vii Contents Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ ii Student Declaration ........................................................................................................... iv Contents ........................................................................................................................... viii List of Figures .................................................................................................................. xiv List of Tables .................................................................................................................... xvi Chapter one: Introduction .................................................................................................. 1 Becoming white: Stefan’s story ............................................................................................. 2 Significance and purpose of study......................................................................................... 6 Summary of Chapters ........................................................................................................... 7 Terminology .......................................................................................................................... 9 Chapter two - Exploring Critical Race Theory and Poststructuralism as theoretical framework .......................................................................................................................... 15 Poststructuralism ................................................................................................................ 15 Critical Race Theory............................................................................................................ 18 Poststructuralism and CRT: Identifying the major ideas for implementation within this research .............................................................................................................................. 23 The paradox of ‘race’ .......................................................................................................... 23 Anti-essentialism/ Intersectionality and identity politics ........................................................ 27 Social justice ....................................................................................................................... 30 Activist-scholarship and positive action ............................................................................... 32 Critical friends: A mutually beneficial relationship ................................................................ 34 Chapter three - ‘Race’, racism(s) and whiteness is sport and leisure ........................... 37 Sport, ‘race’ and bio-racist discourse: Athletes are born, not made? ................................... 38 Scientific racism and sport media ........................................................................................ 42 Sensationalism and neo-racism in the sport and leisure media ........................................... 44 Whiteness, white people and sport and leisure ................................................................... 46 Whiteness as normal and (in)visible .................................................................................... 47 Whiteness as privilege (and supremacy) ............................................................................. 49 Whiteness as contingent ..................................................................................................... 52 Whiteness as (embodied) performance ..............................................................................