ReportNo. 6934 EducationPolicies for Sub-SaharanAfrica: Adjustment,Revitalization, and Expansion Public Disclosure Authorized september15, 1987 Educationand Ermployment Division Populationand Human Resources Department Policy,Planning and Research FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Documentof the WorldBank Thisdocument has a restricteddistribution and may be used by recipients only in the performanceof their officialduties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosedwithout World Bank authorization. K FOR OrICIALusr ONLY This paper was preparedby Peter R. Moock, task leader, and Ralph W. Harbison, under the generaldirection of Aklilu Habte and the immediatesupervision of Dean T. Jamison. Janet Leno draftedmany of the Boxes and providedwriting and editorial as.stanc.e throughjut. Rosemary Bell.w had principal responsibility for preparing the Statistical Annex. Birger Fredriksen and John Middleton wrote the initial drafts of Chapters 4 and 7, respectively.A numberof backgroundpapers were commissioned, and they are noted in the Bibliography. Others who contributed importantlyto this effortinclude Wadi Haddad, Kenneth King (Universityof Edinburg), and Adriaan Verspoor. Thanks to financial assistance from the Norwegian Ministryof DevelopmentCo-operation, this paper has benefited from the comments received on an earlierdraft from African policymakersat two internationalmeetings held in Ethiopia and Cote d'Ivoitein early 1987. The judgmentsexpressed in this paper do not necessarily reflectthe views of the World Lank'smanagement or those of its board of executive directors or of the governmentsthat they represent. The maps used in this docu&ent are solely for the convenience of the readerand do not imply the expressionof any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Bank or its affiliatesconcerning the legal statusof any country,territory, city, area, or of its authorities,or concerningthe delimitation of its boundariesor nationalaffiliation. Thisdocument has a restricteddistribution and may be used byrecipients only in theperformance of their officialduties. Its contentsmay not otherwisebe disclosedwithout World Bank authorization. CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUARY X INTRODCTION 1 PART ONE: THE POLICYCONTEXT 3 Chapter 1. The RemarcableProgress of AfricanEducation 4 1.1 Educationprior to independence 4 1.2 Advancesin educationafter 1960 6 1.3 Expenditureon education 10 (a) Publicdomestic expenditure on education 10 (b) Privatespending on education 13 (c) Foreignaid flows to African education 14 Chapter 2. Educationand the ExternalEnvironment: A Cy-le of 15 DeterioratingProspects 2 *.1 The demographicchallenge 15 2.2 Macroeconomicadjustment and fiscalausterity 20 2.3 Investmentin education:breaking the cycle of 20 deterioratingprospects? (a) Educationand labor productivity 22 (b) Loweredfertility and other nonmarket 25 benefitsof education (c) Educationand economicgrowth: 26 macroeconomicevidence Chapter 3. Major Problems: EnrolluentStagnation and 31 Quality Decline 3.1 Enrollmentstagnation 31 (a) Schoolenrollments 32 (b) Adult literacyand training 33 (c) Expansionand equity 35 3.2 Decliningeducation quality 36 (a) The nature and importanceof quality 36 (b) Evidenceof decliningquality 38 - ii - PART TWO: POLICYOPTIONS FOR AFRICANGOVERNMENTS 43 Chapter4. The Foundationt PrimaryEducation 46 4.1 Measuresto improveschool qcality 47 (a) Trainingand use of teachers 47 (b) Instructionalmaterials 50 (c) Physicalfacilities 53 (d) Languageof instruction 53 (e) Nutrition and health: ensuring teachable pupils 56 (f) Summary 57 4.2 Unit cost containment 58 (a) Teachers'salaries 58 (b) More intensiveuse of teachers 59 (c) Reductionin repetitionand dropout 63 (d) Appropriateconstruction standards 65 4.3 Mobilizingresources for primaryeducation 65 Chapter5. Consolidationof Competence: Secondary 71 Educationand Training 5.1 Meeting the demand for expansionby reducingunit costs 75 (a) Distanceeducation: self-studyschools 76 and extramuralprograms (b) Day schools 79 5.2 Issues of equity: increasedparticipation of females 83 5.3 Trainingfor vocationalcompetence 85 5.4 Financingsecondary education and training 89 (a) Cost-sharingin ,ublic secondaryschools 89 (b) The role of private schools 92 (c) Financingtraining 93 Chapter6. Preparationfor Responsibility:Higher Education 94 6.1 The challengeand the promise 95 6.2 Issuesin higher education 96 (a) Inappropriateoutput mix 97 (b) Low quality 103 (c) High costs 105 (d) Inequitableand inefficientfinance 109 6.3 A programfor structuraladjustment of higher education 110 (a) Improvedquality 110 (b) Increasedefficiency 111 (c) Constrainedoutput 112 (d) Expandedcost-sharing with beneficiaries 113 (e) Feasibility 113 - iii - Chapter 7. Using Resources Wells The Mandate 115 for EducationalManagers 7.1 Improvingorganizational structure 116 (a) Schoolmanagement 116 (b) Decentralizationof policy implementation 117 (c) Structuralsimplification for policy development 120 7.2 Improvinginformation: testing, statistical, 121 and accountingsystems (a) .ducationaltesting 121 (b) Statisticaland accountingsystems 122 7.3 Strengtheninganalytic capacity 124 7.4 Managerialstaff development 125 7.5 Prioritiesand resourcerequirements 128 PART THREE: AN AGENDA FOR ACTION 130 Chapter S. Policy Packagesfor EducationalDevelopment 131 8.1 Adjustment 133 (a) Diversifyingsources of finance 133 (b) Unit cost contaiament 134 8.2 Revitalization:restoring quality 136 (a) Instructional materials 137 (b) Academic standards 138 (c) Operationand maintenanceof physical 138 plant and equipment 8.3 Selectiveexpansion 138 (a) Renewedprogress toward universal 139 primary education (b) Distanceeducation programs 140 (c) Training 140 (d) Research and postgraduateeducation 141 8.4. The task of policy designand implementation 142 - iv - Chapter 9. InternationalAssistance for African 143 Educational Development 9.1 Aid to educationIn the recentpast 143 9.2 The comparativeadvantage of aid: past and present 147 9.3 Internationalassistance for policy design 151 and Implementation (a) Support for developmentof nationalprograms 151 (b) Organizinginternational support for 153 program implementation 9.4 Future allocationsof aid to African education 154 (a) Aid for revitalization 154 (b) Aid for selectiveexpansion 155 9.5 Call to action 159 Bibliography 160 Definitionsand Acronyms 170 Footnotes 174 STATISTICALAMNEX 179 ~~~~~- v INSEZ1D TABLES.FIGUES, ANDBOXES Tables 1.1 Schoolenrollments andenrollment ratios, 1980 and 1983 1.2 Indicatorsof educationalprogress 2.1 Sub-SaharanAfrica prliary and secondary populatlons andenrollments, actual (1983) and projected (2000) 2.2 Thecost lopicatlors of maintalning1983's enrollment ratio throug the year 2000 3.1 Fubilc recurrentexpenditure per studentIn aLb-SaharmnAfrica, 1970-1983 4.1 Mbdimof Instructlonby former oolonlal status 4.2 Primaryanrollment ratios andprlwy education'ssharoe In the educatIonbulgt 5.1 EnrollmentcharacterIstics and education exPenditure by secondaryenrollment groups 5.2 Threeuses for distancoeducation 5.3 lherelative per studentcosts of day schools,boarding schocls, aid self-study schoolsfor secondary uation in Malawi 8.1 Ratiosof graduatestartirg salaries to Percapita income 6.2 Indexof starting salarles In pubilc servioeby educatlonlevel (*Omlevel * 100) 8.3 LUit costs of public educationat the various levels as percentageof Percapita GNP 8.4 Pubilc expenditureper studentIn tertiary educationas multiple of pubic expenditureper puPIl at lower levels 9.1 Estimatedannual xternal resc.roeflows to Africaneducation and training by dbnorgroup and use, 1981-1983average 9.2 Direct educatIonaid by recipient groupand expenditure category, 1981-1983 average 9.3 Dlrect educationaid by level ard source,1981-1983 average 9.4 Allocation of direct educationald by cperEditurecategory c.id source,1981-1983 average Fiaures 1.1 PublIceducation epniture as a percentagpof natlonal Income,Africa andeisewhere 2.1 Sub-SaharanAfrica populationage structure, 1984 2.2 Grawthof school-agepopulations, 1965-1984 and 1984-2000 Boxes 1.1 AggregatepublIc domestlc expenditure oneducation Insub-Saharan Africa 2.1 Relativerates of returnto primary an secondaryeducation InKenya 2.2 Educationand mortallty decline: research from Nipria, Ghana, and Sudan 2.3 Edi±oatlonandeconomlc growth In sub-Sahartn Africa 3.1 Thestory of Ziibabw 3.2 Arecogiltive outcomes really Important? TheInterplay ofability, skills, and schoolIng 4.1 Olstancelearning for teachers InTanzania 4.2 InteractiveeducatIonal radio In Keny,a 4.3 Reducingteacher costs In Burkina Faso 4.4 ReducIngper pupil costs throughdouble-shifting In Senegal 4.5 Low-costschool construction In FrancoovoneAfrica - vi - 5.1 Pollcles toard secondaryedcatlon 5.2 Analternatlve route to secondaryquallfIeatlone In Malawi 5.3 Cormnityfinancing of secondaryschools In Zambla 6.1 Utilization andearnlins of university technilcalgraduates In Coted'lvolre 6.2 CrlsIs of qLallty In hlheredueatlon 7.1 Managementof reform In Ethiopia 7.2 ExaminatIonreform In Kenya 7.3 Livlingstandards surveys (LSS) - vii - SIATISTICALANNEX Part A. Education Indicators A.1 Prlmaryenrollment A.2 Secondaryenrol lmnt A.3 Distribution of secondaryenrollment by type of ecatlon A.4 Tertiary enrollment A.5 Distribution of terttdry enrollmentby field of study A.6 Total enrollment A.7 Primaryenrollment ratios A.8 Secondaryenrollment ratios A.9 Tertiary enrollmentratlos A.10 Teachersand schools A.11 Student-teactwrratios A.12 Studentflow an officIency Indicators A.13