COLLABORATION IN WEB N.0: STIGMERGY AND VIRTUAL PHEROMONES Aiden Dipple Bachelor of Informatics Submitted in [partial] fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Science and Engineering Faculty Queensland University of Technology 2015 Keywords Autopoiesus, Collaboration, Design Pattern, Decentralised Management, Environment-Embedded Communication, Human Factors, Implicit Communication, Self-Organisation, Stigmergy, Swarm Intelligence, Virtual Pheromones, Web Architecture Collaboration in Web N.0: Stigmergy and Virtual Pheromones i Abstract Stigmergy is a biological term used when discussing a sub-set of insect swarm- behaviour describing the apparent organisation seen during their activities. Stigmergy describes a communication mechanism based on environment-mediated signals which trigger responses among the insects. This phenomenon is demonstrated in the behaviour of ants and their food gathering process when following pheromone trails, where the pheromones are a form of environment- mediated communication. What is interesting with this phenomenon is it provides emergent self-organisation where highly organised societies are achieved without an apparent management structure. Stigmergy is also observed in human environments, both natural and engineered. It is implicit in the Web where sites provide a virtual environment supporting coordinative contributions. Researchers in varying disciplines appreciate the power of this phenomenon and have studied how to exploit it. We hypothesized that this phenomenon can be exploited by engineering it into websites more effectively. The aim of this thesis was to develop a general theory of stigmergy and an abstract model. We developed this through a content analysis of influential literature documenting the theories and experiments. The model generated through the qualitative data analysis will be used as a template to assess existing websites through a series of comparative case studies to assess how stigmergy exists in those sites. The results of these studies provide the foundation for design how to engineer stigmergy into websites. This design is developed into a special theory describing a software design pattern for building Web 2.0 components exploiting this self- organizing phenomenon. To verify the software design pattern an experimental prototype website was built that incorporates various stigmergy examples that are seen in popular websites (e.g.: Facebook’s like feature). The prototype has been evaluated against the abstract model to verify that each of the identified features of stigmergy is present and supported by the design pattern. During this research project we discovered that many websites demonstrate examples of stigmergy that fit our model perfectly. In most cases the stigmergic properties appear to have been haphazardly (but fortuitously) included. Through the course of the project we discover that previous research quantitatively verifies that incorporating stigmergy into websites improves collaboration results. What this research has provided is a more rigorous mechanism for systematically including stigmergy into websites. This project has produced a foundation design pattern for future researchers to more easily explore the full capability of incorporating stigmergy within collaborative Web environments to realise this benefit. We consider that the development of an abstract model of stigmergy and the creation of a Web software design pattern based on stigmergy to be a significant contribution. We believe that this will encourage future research into improved collaboration on social sites where the number of users can reach swarm levels and decentralised management solutions are not only scalable, but essential. ii Collaboration in Web N.0: Stigmergy and Virtual Pheromones Table of Contents Keywords .................................................................................................................................. i Abstract .................................................................................................................................... ii Table of Contents .................................................................................................................... iii List of Figures ...........................................................................................................................v List of Tables .......................................................................................................................... vi List of Publications ................................................................................................................ vii Statement of Original Authorship ........................................................................................... ix Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................x Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................ 1 Background ...............................................................................................................................1 Context ......................................................................................................................................4 Purposes ....................................................................................................................................5 Significance, Scope, and Definitions ........................................................................................6 Thesis Outline and Research Papers .........................................................................................7 Chapter 2: Literature Review ................................................................................. 11 Background .............................................................................................................................14 The History of Stigmergy .......................................................................................................17 Understanding the Depth of Stigmergy ..................................................................................22 Evolution and Emergence .......................................................................................................27 From Entomological to Cerebral.............................................................................................30 The Meaning of Stigma ..........................................................................................................36 A New Model ..........................................................................................................................45 Summary and Implications .....................................................................................................53 Chapter 3: Research Design .................................................................................... 56 Methodology and Research Design ........................................................................................56 Methodology .............................................................................................................................. 56 Research Design......................................................................................................................... 60 Participants ..............................................................................................................................60 Instruments ..............................................................................................................................61 Analysis ..................................................................................................................................63 Ethics and Limitations ............................................................................................................64 Chapter 4: Standing on the Shoulders of Ants: Stigmergy in Web N.0 .............. 67 Preamble .................................................................................................................................67 Chapter 5: Stigmergy in Web 2.0: a Model for Site Dynamics ............................ 73 Collaboration in Web N.0: Stigmergy and Virtual Pheromones iii Preamble ................................................................................................................................. 73 Chapter 6: General Theory of Stigmergy: Modelling Stigma Semantics ........... 83 Preamble ................................................................................................................................. 83 Chapter 7: Extending Web Modelling Language to Exploit Stigmergy: Intentionally Recording Unintentional Trails ..................................................... 116 Preamble ............................................................................................................................... 116 Chapter 8: Stigmergy within Web Modelling Languages: Positive Feedback Mechanisms ............................................................................................................. 123 Preamble ............................................................................................................................... 123 Chapter 9: Special Theory of Stigmergy: A Design Pattern for Web 2.0 ......... 131 Preamble ..............................................................................................................................