Sovereignty, Peacekeeping, and the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF), Suez 1956-1967: Insiders’ Perspectives by Hanny Hilmy B.A., Ain-Shams University, Cairo, Egypt, 1966 M.A., International Relations, University of Pennsylvania, USA, 1971 M.A., Economics, University of Ottawa, Canada, 1978 Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the Interdisciplinary Program (History & Political Science) © Hanny Hilmy, 2015 University of Victoria All rights reserved. This Dissertation may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without the permission of the author. ii Supervisory Committee Sovereignty, Peacekeeping, and the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF), Suez 1956-1967: Insiders’ Perspectives by Hanny Hilmy B.A. Ain-Shams University, Cairo, Egypt, 1966 M.A. International Relations, University of Pennsylvania, USA, 1971 M.A. Economics, University of Ottawa, Canada, 1978 Supervisory Committee Dr. Gregory Blue, Department of History Supervisor Dr. Oliver Schmidtke, Department of Political Science Co-Supervisor Dr. Perry Biddiscombe, Department of History Departmental Member Dr. Martin Bunton, Department of History Departmental Member iii Abstract This research is concerned with the complex and contested relationship between the sovereign prerogatives of states and the international imperative of defusing world conflicts. Due to its historical setting following World War Two, the national vs. international staking of claims was framed within the escalating imperial-nationalist confrontation and the impending “end of empire”, both of which were significantly influenced by the role Israel played in this saga. The research looks at the issue of “decolonization” and the anti-colonial struggle waged under the leadership of Egypt’s President Nasser. The Suez War is analyzed as the historical event that signaled the beginning of the final chapter in the domination of the European empires in the Middle East (sub-Saharan decolonization followed beginning in the early 1960s), and the emergence of the United States as the new major Western power in the Middle East. The Suez experience highlighted a stubborn contest between the defenders of the concept of “sovereign consent” and the advocates of “International intervention”. Both the deployment of the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) and its termination were surrounded by controversy and legal-political wrangling. The role of UNEF and UN peacekeeping operations in general framed the development of a new concept for an emerging international human rights law and crisis management. The UNEF experience, moreover, brought into sharp relief the need for a conflict resolution component for any peace operation. International conflict management, and human rights protection are both subject to an increasing interventionist international legal regime. Consequently, the traditional concept of “sovereignty” is facing increasing challenge. By its very nature, the subject matter of this multi-dimensional research involves historical, political and international legal aspects shaping the research’s content and conclusions. The research utilizes the experience and contributions of several key participants in this pioneering peacekeeping experience. In the last chapter, recommendations are made –based on all the elements covered in the research- to suggest contributions to the evolving UN ground rules for international crisis intervention and management. iv Table of Contents Front Matter: Title Page Supervisory Committee………………………...…………………………………………………ii Abstract ................................................................................................................................... ii Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... iv List of Figures and Maps ................................................................................................................ v Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... vii Dedication .................................................................................................................................. ix Epigrams ……………………………………………………………………………………… x Chapters: Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2: End of Empire, Anti-Colonial Nationalism, and the 1956 Suez War ...................... 20 Chapter 3: UNEF at Centre Stage: The Political and Legal Foundations ............................... 139 Chapter 4: The 1967 Middle East War and the Demise of UNEF: The Political and Legal Aspects and their Ramifications ............................................................................ 218 Chapter 5: The UNEF Experience and Post-UNEF Doctrines of Peace Operations ………. 323 Chapter 6: Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 379 Bibliography: ............................................................................................................................ 390 A. Documentary Materials ................................................................................................... 390 B. Memoirs, Diaries, Public and Private Biographies & Insiders’ Accounts ...................... 398 C. Books, Articles & Reports .............................................................................................. 401 Appendix: ............................................................................................................................... 428 A. Final Communique of the Bandung Conference. 24 April 1955. (Highlights) ............... 428 B. The Sèvres Protocol between Britain France and Israel. Signed in France on 24 October 1956. (Highlights) ....................................................... 430 C. The Good Faith Agreement between Egypt and the UN – Aide-mémoire: General Assembly (A/3375) – 20 November 1956. (Highlights) ................................................. 431 D. Status of the Force Agreement between Egypt and the UN – General Assembly (A/1126-XI) – 22 February 1957. (Highlights)............................................................... 432 E. Egyptian-UN officials’ Meeting in Cairo – 6 January 1959. (Unpublished) .................. 433 F. Egyptian – UNEF Agreements ....................................................................................... 443 v List of Figures and Maps Photos 1. French General André Beaufre, land campaign in Port Said in 1956 p. 21 2. White Man’s Burden p. 23 3. Saad Zaghlool, leader of the Egyptian Wafd Party in 1919 p. 30 4. Lord Alfred Milner, Colonial Administrator p. 30 5. Earl of Cromer, Consul General in Egypt, 1907 p. 31 6. Signing the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 p. 32 7. Egyptian Police casualties, Ismailia, 25 January 1952 p. 35 8. Egyptian Revolution Command Council, July 1952 p. 40 9. Signing the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1954 p. 42 10. President Nasser greeting the crowds, Damascus 1958 p. 44 11. President Nasser Distributing lands to Egyptian peasants p. 47 12. President Nasser with the leaders of the Algerian Revolution p. 48 13. The Leaders of the Non-Alignment Movement p. 52 14. President Nasser announcing the nationalization of the Suez Canal Company, Alexandria, 26 July 1956 P. 57 15. Israeli General Moshe Dayan, 1956 p. 73 16. David Ben-Gurion, first prime minister of Israel p. 75 17. Nasser and Amer in 1956 p. 90 18. Suez Canal blocked at Port Said, October-November 1956 p. 96 19. Port Said Harbour, November 1956 p. 96 20. Ferdan Bridge across the Suez Canal blown up, November 1956 p. 97 21. Destruction in Port Said, November 1956 p. 98 22. Clearing the Suez Canal April 1957, p. 100 23. Opening of the Suez Canal, 17 November 1869 p. 103 24. Nasser and Eden in Cairo in 1955 p. 104 25. President Dwight Eisenhower and Secretary of State John F. Dulles p. 113 26. President Nasser with General Hilmy p. 141 27. UN Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjold with Canada’s External Affairs Minister Lester Pearson at the UN, November 1956 p. 143 28. UN Secretary-General Hammarskjold addressing the Security Council p. 146 29. Dag Hammarskjold at his office in the UN Headquarters, New York p. 147 30. General Hilmy Receiving UN secretary-general in Egypt p. 156 31. President Nasser with UN secretary-general in Cairo, November 1956 p. 159 32. UNEF soldiers in the Middle East p. 166 33. Canada’ Ambassador E. H. Norman presenting his letter of accreditation to President Nasser in Cairo, 1956 p. 169 34. Receiving the Canadian contingent in UNEF in Port Said p. 170 35. General Burns Discussing POWs exchange with General Hilmy, 1956 p. 174 36. General Burns in Europe in 1944 p. 176 37. General Burns in the Gaza Strip, 1959 p. 178 38. Cadet Hilmy in the Egyptian Royal Military College, 1937 p. 181 39. UNEF troops arriving in Egypt, November 1956 p. 182 vi 40. General Hilmy in his office in Gaza, 1959 p. 184 41. General Hilmy’s official visit to Canada, 1960 p. 187 42. General C. F. Keightly, 1949 p. 189 43. Egyptian newspaper Al-Ahram, 16 February 1959 p. 201 44. Norwegian professor Johan Galtung p. 205 45. President Nasser and Vice President Amer reviewing the troops p. 226 46. Nasser and Amer: A Tragic friendship p. 228 47. General Burns, General Hilmy, and General Rikhye in Gaza p. 231 48. General Rikhye inspecting