View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Carolina Digital Repository THE TRAUMA AT HOME: WIVES OF RETURNING VETERANS IN GREEK TRAGEDY Erika L. Weiberg A dissertation submitted to the faculty at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Classics. Chapel Hill 2016 Approved by: William H. Race Sharon L. James Owen Goslin Keyne Cheshire Al Duncan © 2016 Erika L. Weiberg ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT ERIKA L. WEIBERG: The Trauma at Home: Wives of Returning Veterans in Greek Tragedy (Under the direction of William H. Race) Drawing on feminist theory and recent research on the psychological effects of war trauma (especially PTSD), this study recovers a neglected aspect of women’s experiences of war in fifth-century Athens. Three plays by the three Athenian playwrights depict the social and personal concerns of veterans’ wives in ways that other evidence from the ancient world does not. By investigating the depiction of wives’ experiences of their husbands’ homecoming, this dissertation illuminates important aspects of the plays themselves, such as their themes, characters, and structure, as well as Athenian views on war and its potential to disrupt marital relationships. This study devotes a chapter each to Penelope in the Odyssey, Clytemnestra in Aeschylus’ Agamemnon, Deianeira in Sophocles’ Trachiniae, and Megara in Euripides’ Heracles. Each work addresses a different scenario of the veteran’s return and examines potential problems for the family from the perspective of the wife. Chapter 1 situates the project within the framework of existing scholarship on epic and tragedy. In addition, it examines evidence for the military revolution in fifth-century Athens, which allowed large-scale mobilization of troops for the first time in Greek history. Chapter 2, on Penelope, surveys the importance for later tragedies of the epic paradigm of the waiting wife. Chapter 3 explores the perspective of Clytemnestra in the Agamemnon. Although Clytemnestra is portrayed as monstrous in her vengeance, she also articulates clearly the waiting wife’s concerns, drawing on iii tropes from the Odyssey, in her parody of a faithful wife’s speech. Chapter 4 analyzes the Trachiniae and shows how Deianeira’s past incidents of sexual trauma continue to affect her as she works to heal the rift between herself and her veteran husband. Chapter 5 argues that Euripides’ Heracles dramatizes veteran domestic violence and the lack of cause and effect between the actions of a heroic waiting wife, Megara, and the death of her and her children at her husband’s hands. Chapter 6 surveys the conclusions of the study with a discussion of waiting wives’ concerns in both comedy and tragedy. iv To Tim, welcome sight of land to this tired swimmer v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Writing a dissertation, it turns out, is not solitary work. Many people have contributed their wisdom and encouragement, without which this project would never have been completed. I would like to thank first and foremost my dissertation director, Bill Race, who read every word countless times, and who helped formulate many of the ideas in these chapters. I would also especially like to thank Sharon James, who encouraged this project from its inception, when it was merely a few sentences rapidly scribbled on paper. Amy Richlin and Mary-Kay Gamel offered their expert advice during the summer of 2012. The other members of my committee – Owen Goslin, Keyne Cheshire, and Al Duncan – offered invaluable feedback at various stages of the writing process. This project would be much poorer without their thoughtful comments. Keyne deserves special thanks for introducing me to Sophocles’ Trachiniae when I was a senior in college. I am also grateful to Peter Smith and Emily Baragwanath, who read and encouraged this project, Peter at its beginning stages and Emily at its end. The Department of Classics at UNC provided me with years of inspiring instruction and funding with which to pursue my dream of reading and writing all day long. The Graduate School at UNC helped fund a summer and a final year of research and writing, allowing me to complete the project in a timely fashion. The American School of Classical Studies at Athens also provided a year of travel and research that revived my spirit. I remain grateful for the friendships I made there, and would like to thank Mary Hamil Gilbert, K. Scarlett Kingsley, and Monica Park in particular for their companionship and late-night conversations about everything from George Eliot to Zoe Karelli. vi My friends have been particularly generous in their support of me and this project. Katie De Boer Simons commented upon several drafts and offered moral support. Andrea Applebee listened to each of these chapters and provided her expertise on writing problems in addition to her unflagging encouragement. Kevin Bell pointed me toward veterans’ organizations that offer support to family members, and shared his own war poetry and experiences. Many other friends offered welcome distraction, laughter, and homemade meals during the writing of this dissertation; they know who they are, and I thank them all. Finally, I owe an immense debt to my parents, Kevin and Susan Weiberg, who have always encouraged my peculiar fascination with reading, writing, and Classics. Gratitude is also owed to Winnie, my dog and constant companion during the final stages of writing and revising, for much-needed cuddles and walks. This dissertation is dedicated to Tim Shea, my partner in everything, for believing in me. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................1 Methodology ........................................................................................................................2 Social and historical context: Athens’ military revolution ................................................12 Chapter overviews .............................................................................................................17 Conclusion .........................................................................................................................20 CHAPTER 2: OPERATION ENDURING WIFE: PENELOPE IN THE ODYSSEY ...................21 Penelope’s crisis and Telemachus’ coming-of-age ............................................................23 The suitors’ plot .................................................................................................................32 Penelope before the suitors ................................................................................................42 Testing each other ..............................................................................................................46 Recognition, reunion, and storytelling ...............................................................................58 Looking ahead ....................................................................................................................65 CHAPTER 3: THE “BITTER HOUSEKEEPER”: CLYTEMNESTRA IN AESCHYLUS’ AGAMEMNON ..............................................................................................................................69 The home front in Argos ....................................................................................................75 The Watchman .......................................................................................................76 The Chorus .............................................................................................................79 The citizens of Argos .............................................................................................86 Playing the good wife ........................................................................................................90 The hostile watchdog .......................................................................................................101 viii The other woman .............................................................................................................104 Resentment and revenge ..................................................................................................108 Aftermath .........................................................................................................................117 CHAPTER 4: “THAT ‘OTHER WOMAN’”: DEIANEIRA IN SOPHOCLES’ TRACHINIAE ...............................................................................................................................121 Making sense of the past, predicting the future ...............................................................125 The lonely wife ................................................................................................................132 Iole and the double messenger scene ...............................................................................141 Suppressing emotion ........................................................................................................154 The writing on the mind: another trauma story ...............................................................161 Losing faith ......................................................................................................................173 Heracles’ sickness ............................................................................................................183