US Foreign Policy on Transitional Justice: Case Studies on Cambodia, Liberia and Colombia Annie R. Bird PhD Thesis London School of Economics and Political Science 1 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MPhil/PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of 76,202 words. 2 Acknowledgements An undergraduate course at UC Berkeley with Eric Stover and David Cohen inspired a decade of interest in transitional justice. Stover encouraged me to undertake a fellowship I received upon graduating at the International Center for Transitional Justice, which led to my interest in graduate studies in the field. The Marshall Scholarship made this possible, providing an exceptional opportunity to study in the UK at world-class institutions. Professor James Hughes in the Government Department provided useful guidance on my research during the first year of the PhD. Professor Chris Brown in the International Relations Department took my project on a year into the programme, kept my research moving, and was always accessible and responsive. Dr. Chris Alden and Dr. Kirsten Ainley supported my research at several key moments. Many people made extensive fieldwork in five countries possible. Crucial financial support was provided by the Marshall Commission for fieldwork in Washington DC; the IR Department for fieldwork in Cambodia and The Hague, and enabling my participation in several international conferences; the Abbey-Grupo Santander grant for fieldwork in Colombia; and a Benetech/State Department consultancy in Liberia that closely related to my research. Nearly 200 individuals kindly agreed to an interview for this study and many others helped make this fieldwork possible. My thanks are extended to Dr. Erik Voeten who served as my faculty contact while I was a Visiting Researcher at Georgetown University, and to Dr. Leslie Vinjamuri and several other members of the London Transitional Justice Network (LTJN) who provided a valuable London-based community working on transitional justice. Particular thanks are extended to Mary Denyer and Lizzie Clark at the 3 Marshall Commission, Hilary Parker and Martina Langer in the IR Department, Chris Steele in IT Services, Jackie Woodley at Butlers Wharf and the LSE Teaching and Learning Center. The support of fellow PhD students and friends was critical. Simon Bastow offered constructive advice throughout the research. Friends in the IR and Government research rooms, as well as Gillian, Lila, Mariana, Alia, Maja, Filippo, Hans, Yaniv, Vaho, Stephane, Joyce and Yuuki were important sources of moral support. Finally, I must thank my mother, who instilled in me the importance of education, and has always been my strongest advocate. 4 Abstract The US has been involved in the majority of transitional justice measures established since the 1990s. This study explores this phenomenon by examining the forces that shape US foreign policy on transitional justice. It first investigates US influence on the evolution of the field, and then traces US involvement in three illustrative cases in order to establish what US involvement entails, why the US gets involved and how the US has impacted individual measures and the field as a whole. The cases include: the Khmer Rouge Tribunal in Cambodia; the trial of Liberian President Charles Taylor and the Liberian Truth and Reconciliation Commission; and the Justice and Peace Process in Colombia. These cases represent different transitional justice measures, transition types and geographic regions – all key dimensions in the field. These measures were also all established in the 2000s, a period which reflects a different historical moment in the field’s evolution. The cases shed light on the actors who play a key role in the field – from presidential administrations to Congress to the State Department and others. The study is based on nearly 200 interviews and archival research undertaken in the US, The Hague, Cambodia, Liberia and Colombia, providing a strong basis on which to draw conclusions about US foreign policy on transitional justice. 5 Contents Chapter 1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 9 Chapter 2 US Influence on the Evolution of Transitional Justice .................... 24 2.1 Precursors to Transitional Justice ................................................................. 25 2.2 Emergence of the Field ................................................................................. 29 2.3 Institutionalizing Transitional Justice ........................................................... 42 2.4 Explaining US Influence ............................................................................... 63 Chapter 3 US Involvement in the Khmer Rouge Tribunal ............................... 67 3.1 US Foreign Policy in Cambodia ................................................................... 69 3.2 The Tribunal .................................................................................................. 75 3.3 Explaining US Involvement ........................................................................ 101 Chapter 4 US Involvement in the Taylor Trial and Liberian Truth and Reconciliation Commission ................................................................................... 112 4.1 US Foreign Policy in Liberia ...................................................................... 113 4.2 The Taylor Trial .......................................................................................... 121 4.3 The Truth and Reconciliation Commission ................................................ 137 4.4 Explaining US Involvement ........................................................................ 151 Chapter 5 US Involvement in the Colombian Justice and Peace Process ...... 157 5.1 US Foreign Policy in Colombia .................................................................. 159 5.2 The Justice and Peace Process .................................................................... 167 5.3 Paramilitary Extraditions to the US ............................................................ 184 5.4 Explaining US Involvement ........................................................................ 190 Chapter 6 Comparing Cases of US Involvement in Transitional Justice ...... 194 6.1 Establishing US Involvement ...................................................................... 195 6.2 Explaining US Involvement ........................................................................ 211 6 6.3 Assessing US Involvement ......................................................................... 233 Chapter 7 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 238 Bibliography ........................................................................................................... 247 Case Study Bibliography ....................................................................................... 272 Methods Bibliography ........................................................................................... 292 Appendices ............................................................................................................ 295 Appendix 1 Methods ..................................................................................... 295 Appendix 2 Interview List and Statistics ...................................................... 323 Appendix 3 List of Meetings Attended ......................................................... 339 Appendix 4 Cambodia Materials .................................................................. 340 Appendix 5 Liberia Materials ....................................................................... 342 Appendix 6 Colombia Materials ................................................................... 347 Appendix 7 List of Transitional Justice Actors ............................................ 354 Appendix 8 Attendees of Early Transitional Justice Conferences ................ 356 7 Table of figures Figure 1: US actors involved in transitional justice ................................................... 14 Figure 2: Explanations for US involvement in transitional justice ............................ 16 Figure 3: The evolution of transitional justice: three stages ...................................... 24 Figure 4: Measures commonly associated with transitional justice ........................... 37 Figure 5: Web search results for ‘transitional justice’ ............................................... 43 Figure 6: International assistance to transitional justice ............................................ 45 Figure 7: Foreign aid versus TJ assistance ................................................................. 45 Figure 8: International assistance to the ECCC ......................................................... 94 Figure 9: International assistance to the SCSL .......................................................