UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA RIVERSIDE The Stacked Bar Model: Japanese-Peruvians’ National Ethnic Identities Across Peru, Japan and the United States A Dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sociology by Shigueru Julio Tsuha December 2011 Dissertation Committee: Dr. Alfredo Mirandé, Chairperson Dr. Lane Hirabayashi Dr. Scott Brooks Copyright by Shigueru Julio Tsuha 2011 The Dissertation of Shigueru Julio Tsuha is approved: _________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Committee Chairperson University of California, Riverside ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I have been truly privileged and fortunate to have been able to work with a very special dissertation committee. I am forever grateful for the guidance, patience, and encouragement I have received from Dr. Alfredo Mirandé, Dr. Scott Brooks, and Dr. Lane Hirabayashi. I would like to recognize Dr. Alfredo Mirandé for his unwavering support throughout my entire graduate student experience. The lessons I have learned from him exceed far beyond the realm of academia. I am grateful to him for serving as my committee chair and allowing me the flexibility necessary to accomplish this life long dream, and thanks for serving as a great role model. Dr. Scott Brooks always provided very insightful analysis to my work, and challenged me to look at my theories and data from different angles. I will always remember our conversation after my oral defense, and remember how fortunate I have been to have had the support of such an intelligent and understanding mentor. Lastly, I find myself in colossal debt to Dr. Lane Hirabayashi. He provided the expertise necessary and managed to guide my dissertation to the right place while simultaneously allowing me to retain the freedom and authority to develop and express my own ideas. His understanding and support catapulted me out of the most difficult episodes in this writing process, and for that, I am forever grateful. Also, I would like to thank Dr. Ellen Reese and Dr. Edna Bonacich for being model professors and arguably the main reasons why I decided to study sociology at a graduate level. iv DEDICATION This thesis is, first and foremost, dedicated to my grandfather, Julio Jikko Tsuha (R.I.P.). Thank you, Ojii, for having the vision, strength, courage and work ethic to bring our entire family to Los Angeles. I have often thought about you during the development of this project, especially during the most difficult parts to help me find the strength to continue moving forward. The pride I take in this work will always be remembered with all your sacrifices. Secondly, I would like to dedicate this to my parents. Nothing bad has ever happened to me in my life. I have had everything I have ever needed and more. For that, I am grateful to you. I am grateful for your love, support, understanding and sacrifices. I am grateful to my dad for always providing a model of responsibility and work ethic, and for my mom making sure I did my homework every night. Thirdly, I would like to dedicate this to my aunt Noemi, my uncle Geber, and my mother. In our family migration to the United States nobody sacrificed more than you three. Without you, none of my accomplishments would have been possible. Fourth, I would like to dedicate this to all my uncles and my aunts who at one point or another played the role of being my parent. It is through your strength that we have remained a united family, and this is the most cherished possession I have. Fifth, I would like to dedicate this to my brothers, my cousins, my friends Jose Perez and Hugo Arias. It is because you that I have never once been concerned with solitude. You have always been there for me. v Lastly, I dedicate this to my fellow graduate students. You were the source of most of my education regarding sociology, justice, and life in general during my time as a graduate student. I honestly have no idea how I would have made it through this whole process without you by my side. For that, I thank you with all my heart. vi ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION The Stacked Bar Model: Japanese-Peruvians’ National Ethnic Identities Across Peru, Japan and the United States of America by Shigueru Julio Tsuha Doctor of Philosophy, Graduate Program in Sociology University of California, Riverside, December 2011 Dr. Alfredo Mirandé, Chairperson This project has two intertwined goals: 1) to understand the formation of Japanese- Peruvians’ national ethnic identities across Peru, Japan, and the United States of America, by analyzing data from 40-indepth interviews with Japanese-Peruvians living the United States, and 2) to develop and explain the Stacked Bar Model of Ethnicities and Ethnic Identities as a new analytical system by which to understand the national ethnic identities of migrants. In order to do this, Japanese-Peruvians’ ethnic identities are treated as working outside of a zero-sum context and shown to function as multiple ordinal variables that can grow and shrink independently of each other. National ethnic requirements and ethnic othering qualifiers are then identified as ideal types of ethnic traits that govern the identities that are restricted and made available to Japanese- Peruvians in each country. vii Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction…………………………………………………………1 Goals………………………………………………………………………1 Sample and Methods………………………………………………………6 Migration to Peru and Peru’s Racial Formation…………………………..7 Return migration to Japan and Japan’s Racial Formation……………….13 Migration to the United States and the United States’ Racial Formation………………………………………………………………...25 Defining Ethnicity………………………………………………………..29 Review on Theories of Ethnicity and Nation…………………………….34 Organization of Chapters………………………………………………...44 Chapter 2: Emergence of the Stacked Bar Model of Ethnicity and Ethnic Identity…………………………………………………………………………..46 Principle 1: Rejection of the Pie-Chart-Mentality……………………….46 Principle 2: Treatment of Ethnicities and Ethnic Identities as Ordinal Variables…………………………………………………………………58 Principle 3: Four Ideal Types of Ethnic Traits as Building Blocks of the Stacked Bar Model…………………………………………………...61 Principle 4: Understanding the Effects of the Ideal Types of Ethnic Traits on Ethnic Identities………………………………………………..69 Peru, Japan, the United States and the Stacked Bar Model……………...73 Chapter 3: Peru…………………………………………………………………75 Racism……………………………………………………………………75 Agency – Preserving Japanese Ethnic Identity…………………………..91 viii Table 1: Oppositional Definitions of Criollismo and Nikkei Character by Positive and Negative Connotations……………...105 Stacked Bar Model in Peru……………………………………………..108 Chapter 4: Japan……………………………………………………………...117 Racism………………………………………………………………….117 Agency – Developing a Peruvian Identity……………………………...129 Stacked Bar Model in Japan……………………………………………137 Chapter 5: United States……………………………………………………...145 Racism…………………………………………………………………..145 Agency – Ethnic Options……………………………………………….161 Stacked Bar Model in the United States………………………………..179 Chapter 6: Conclusion………………………………………………………...189 Summary of Japanese-Peruvians’ Ethnic Identities as Analyzed Through the Stacked Bar Model………………………………………………….189 What the Future Holds for Japanese-Peruvian Younger Generations….194 Unresolved Issues and Future Studies………………………………….195 Nepantilism and Nikkei Identity………………………………………..202 Conclusion……………………………………………………………...207 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………...208 ix List of Figures Figure 1.1: Iterative Relationship Between Goals of Project……………………..1 Figure 2.1: Pie Chart of a Multi-Ethnic Individuals’ Ethnic Identities…………..55 Figure 2.2: Angel’s Ethnic Identities in Peru and Japan in Pie Charts…………..56 Figure 2.3: Juana’s Ethnic Identities in Peru and U.S. in Pie Charts…………….57 Figure 2.4: Ethnic Identities as Ordinal Variables……………………………….60 Figure 2.5: Ethnic Identities Through Time and Space………………………….61 Figure 2.6: “Full” National Ethnic Composition of Host Society vs. “Partial” Ethnic Composition of Ethnic Minorities………………………………………..65 Figure 2.7: “Full” Othered Ethnic Composition of Ethnic Minorities in a Host Society……………………………………………………………………………68 Figure 2.8: Juxtaposing Ethnic Identity with “Full” and “Partial” Ethnic Compositions…………………………………………………………………….72 Figure 3.1: Peruvian Ethnic Composition in Peru and Peruvian Identity of Japanese-Peruvians……………………………………………………………..108 Figure 3.2: Japanese Ethnic Composition in Peru (and by Peru) and Japanese Identity of Japanese-Peruvians…………………………………………………111 Figure 3.3: Peruvian and Japanese Identities of Japanese-Peruvians…………..115 Figure 4.1: Japanese Ethnic Composition in Japan and Japanese Identity of Japanese-Peruvians……………………………………………………………..137 Figure 4.2: Peruvian Ethnic Composition in Peru vs. Japanese Ethnic Composition in Japan…………………………………………………………...139 Figure 4.3: Peruvian Ethnic Composition in Japan (and by Japan) and Peruvian Identity of Japanese-Peruvians…………………………………………………140 Figure 4.4: Japanese and Peruvian Identities of Japanese-Peruvians in Japan…143 x Figure 5.1: American Ethnic Composition in the U.S. and American Identity of Japanese-Peruvians……………………………………………………………..179 Figure 5.2: “Full” American Identity of Some Japanese-Peruvians Raised in the U.S……………………………………………………………………………...181 Figure 5.3: Peruvian Ethnic Composition in the U.S. (by Americans) and Peruvian Identity of Japanese-Peruvians…………………………………………………182 Figure 5.4: