Reclaiming Early Ethnography Through Contemporary Inuit Cultural Production by Shaina Humble A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English Department of English and Film Studies University of Alberta © Shaina Humble, 2020 Humble ii Abstract The dissertation is concerned with how Inuit artists are reclaiming knowledge from early ethnographic texts. Early ethnographic texts, such as the writing, photographs, and cultural products produced or acquired by Danish-Greenlandic explorer Knud Rasmussen during the Fifth Thule Expedition (1921-1924), helped shape dominant perceptions of Inuit and their communities. For example, Rasmussen was hired by the Government of Canada in 1925 to act as a consultant for Arctic policy. During his tenure, Rasmussen identified what he perceived to be a loss of traditional Inuit culture, but he also argued that cultural loss was necessary for Inuit to survive in “modern society” (Bown 284). Rasmussen’s arguments, which were prevalent in anthropological discourses throughout the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, are reflected in the genre of “salvage ethnography,” or texts created by early ethnographers that sought to preserve Indigenous cultures under the false assumption of disappearance. These discourses continue to have significant relevance today, as Inuit representational organizations, such as Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami (ITK), partner with the Government of Canada to develop documents like the Arctic Policy Framework, which will shape federal priorities in the North until 2030. The research is guided by two main questions: How is the knowledge contained in early ethnographic texts being reclaimed and mobilized in contemporary Inuit literature and film? And how can these artistic texts shape contemporary discourses about Inuit cultures, communities, and people? The dissertation aims to answer these questions through engagement with the primary texts, including: Mini Aodla Freeman’s Life Among the Qallunaat (1978/2015), Igloolik Isuma Productions’ The Journals of Knud Rasmussen (2006), and Aqqaluk Lynge’s Taqqat uummammut aqqutaannut takorluukkat apuuffiannut/The Veins of the Heart to the Pinnacle of Humble iii the Mind (2008). Conventional literary analysis methods, such as close reading, are supported by interviews with the artists, and fieldwork in Nuuk, Greenland (January-May 2018) and Igloolik, Nunavut (July 2018). The dissertation advocates for a methodological shift in Indigenous literary studies that prioritizes consultation with artists, the importance of fostering relationships, and working outside the physical confines of texts. Drawing from Kim TallBear’s methodology of “standing with,” which credits specialists who are not conventionally regarded as scholars within the restrictive framework of the academy, but who are essential to scholarship (82), I advocate for centring the knowledge of artists due to their lived expertise within the field. However, shifting methods in literary studies towards a model that prioritizes the contributions of artists presents significant challenges, including additional pressures on artists’ labour and a lack of institutional support for both students and mentors. These methodological inquiries are developed via engagement with three major texts. The first chapter considers how the original 1978 publication of Aodla Freeman’s Life Among the Qallunaat was miscategorised as a form of reverse ethnography, while the 2015 edition maintains its initial memoir status. Using an interview with the author, a comparative reading between the two editions, and an analysis of the original typescript, I argue that Hurtig Publishers’ mischaracterization of the text made it more marketable to Southern audiences and facilitated a reverse ethnographic reading. The second chapter, concerning the Isuma film The Journals of Knud Rasmussen, draws from interviews with several crew members to examine how the creation of the community-produced film provided opportunities for re-teaching and re- learning cultural knowledge. Creators of the film drew from Rasmussen’s ethnographic material to facilitate these processes. Lastly, the third chapter uses Lynge’s text and an interview with the Humble iv author to consider the potential of using relational methodologies for studying Greenlandic literature. As a Kalaaleq (Greenlandic) politician and author, Lynge engages with Rasmussen’s ethnographic work to challenge dominant narratives concerning the representation of early “exploration” in Kalaallit Nunaat (Greenland), including the essential contributions of Arnarulunnguaq, the memorialization of these events, and the major concerns involved with representing Kalaallit Nunaat as a place that can be “explored.” The conclusion serves as a call to action for scholars in Indigenous literatures to use non-textual methods. Humble v Preface This thesis is an original work by Shaina Humble. It received research ethics approval from the University of Alberta Research Ethics Board, No. 00065062, August 22, 2016 (renewed annually). According to the Nunavut Scientists Act, all researchers undertaking work in the territory require a research license issued by the Nunavummi Qaujisaqtulirijikkut/Nunavut Research Institute. The scientific research license number for this project is 02 030 18N-A, which was issued on March 15, 2018. No research licenses are required to undertake work in Kalaallit Nunaat (Greenland). No part of this thesis has been previously published. Humble vi Dedication For my Grandad, Brian McCombe Humble vii Acknowledgements This project would not have been possible without the unwavering support of many people and communities. It is challenging to articulate all my gratitude and appreciation here, but I am thankful for the support and guidance of many people, including many that are not listed here—qujanaq, qujannamiik, and thank you! First, qujanaq and qujannamiik to the artists who shared their knowledge with me throughout this project: Atuat Akkitirq, Michelline Ammaq, Mini Aodla Freeman, Susan Avingaq, Zacharias Kunuk, and Aqqaluk Lynge. Thank you for offering your time and expertise to this research. Qujannamiik to Myna Manniapik and Jason Kunnuk for your translation expertise and support. Qujannamiik, also, to my Inuktitut teachers who patiently helped me with my language lessons: Mini Aodla Freeman, Myna Manniapik, Meeka Otway, and Noel McDermott. Qujanaq to Liv Molich and Michelle Danielsen at Learn Greenlandic for supporting my Kalaallisut language learning. A special qujanaq to Evi Kreutzmann, my Kalaallisut teacher and now friend, who encouraged me from that very first class (despite me not speaking Danish) to the final defence of the PhD. And another special qujanaq to my friend Malu Jessen Berthelsen who patiently helped me practice Kalaallisut over tea for months and who offered gentle guidance throughout my time in Nuuk. I am also incredibly grateful for my mentors at the University of Alberta and Ilisimatusarfik who supported both the research and myself over the course of the PhD. Thank you to my supervisor, Dr. Keavy Martin, for her incredible patience throughout the challenges of the PhD, for her dedication to ethical research, and for her constant encouragement. Thank you to Dr. Liz Czach, my first reader, who always offered gentle encouragement, or straight talk— whatever was needed at that moment. Thank you to my second reader, Dr. Mark Nuttall, for Humble viii encouraging me to travel to Nuuk and to work outside of the text. And qujanaq to Professor Birgit Kleist Pedersen for offering support as my host supervisor at Ilisimatusarfik. Thank you to my external examiners—Dr. Michelle Raheja and Dr. Nancy Van Syvendale—for their deep engagement with the project. Lastly, thank you to Dr. Teresa Zackodnik who chaired the defence, but who offered much needed support well before. A huge thank you to my friends for always being there, for offering much needed support, and for each offering guidance in your own way. Gregory Blomquist, thank you for the ghost stories and mutual support. Merissa Daborn, thank you for your guidance concerning ethical Northern research and fieldwork. Orly Lael Netzer, thank you for your calm, measured approach to the challenges of the PhD. David Parent, thank you for pushing my theoretical thinking. Becca Shortt, thank you for supporting me to see things beyond the PhD. Amy Tarnowski, thank you for your gentle feedback and editing since elementary school. Meagan Walford, thank you for always being there to chat, even from a distance. Lastly, thank you to the Ottawa crew who helped me to push through the final stages of the PhD: Sarah Byrne, Geneviève Lessard, and Meaghan Squire. Thank you to my family, especially my Nanny, Irene McCombe, my parents, Shawn McCombe and Neil Humble, and my siblings, Jory and Calum Humble. And to my cat family: Stanley, Nicholas, Perdu, Mafii, and Skoden. I would not have been able to do this without you. Lastly, this research, especially travelling to Nuuk, Greenland and Igloolik, Nunavut, was made possible thanks to funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, the Northern Scientific Training Program, the University of Alberta Northern Research Award, and internal funding from the Department of English and Film Studies and the University of Alberta. Humble ix Table of Contents List of Figures ...............................................................................................................................