*9H9@@G5B8*9A5?9GUnderstanding CK CFFCF-F65B$9;9B8G<5B;9'J9F,=A9 $=B7C@B"C<B"5A9GCGH9@@C ,<9G=GGI6A=HH98HCH<9:57I@HMC:H<9.=F;=B=5(C@MH97<B=7!BGH=HIH95B8+H5H9-B=J9FG=HM =BD5FH=5@:I@:=@@A9BHC:H<9F9EI=F9A9BHG:CFH<989;F99C: %5GH9FC:FHG !B CAAIB=75H=CB +H9D<5B=9+A=H<<5=F &5H5@=5%=9@7N5F9? Marcus%M9FG August 11, 2021 @57?G6IF;.=F;=B=5 #9MKCF8GA9A9H<9CFMB5FF5H=J95B5@MG=G<=GHCF=75@7CBH9LH5B5@MG=GIF65B@9;9B8G Retells and Remakes: How Horror Urban Legends Change Over Time Lincoln John James Costello *:;9)+; This study seeks to understand how horror urban legends undergo changes over time and the possible reasons for their alterations. Past researchers have yet to analyze the shifts that have occurred within the retellings of these dark tales, and through this analysis, light will be shed onto what truly affects the media’s storytelling behavior. Building upon meme theory, this study will use narrative and historical context analyses to uncover the objectives, narrative elements and temporal environments surrounding 10 replications of three horror urban legend memes over the past century. This research will uncover how these memes have mutated over time and inform the world as to how context plays a role. A total of 30 horror urban legend artifacts (10 per meme) were analyzed using qualitative research methods in order to uncover the similarities and differences that appeared in the replications of each of the memes. Also, the contemporary thoughts, attitudes and values of the various time periods in which each of the retellings existed were analyzed to understand how historical events and movements may have led to a change in the story. The findings revealed that social movements played a large role in the alteration of horror urban legend memes, particularly in regards to the second wave of Feminism. Additionally, the findings showed that memes that heavily portrayed racism were altered in more recent decades to include leading actors and characters of various ethnic backgrounds. Because of these findings, this research aligns with and expands upon the work completed by Joel Best and Gerald Horiuchi (1985). Retells and Remakes: How Horror Urban Legends Change Over Time Lincoln John James Costello -6-9)4<,1-6+-*:;9)+; This study looks at how three icon horror urban legends have changed over the past century. Specifically, this study analyzes “Bloody Mary,” “Sleepy Hollow” and the “Wendigo” in order to track the changes each tale has gone through, in addition to uncovering what might influence their change. Researchers have yet to understand this occurrence, and this study will serve as a way to answer why the media would be interested in revisiting and reviving older stories. Remakes of movies and TV shows are found in abundance within society, so this research will help assign a reason as to why ancient tales are dug back up from the grave. Using meme theory, this study examines how a story is able to be retold, remade and eventually changed by analyzing 10 remakes per urban legend, with each remake coming from a different decade between the 1920s and the 2010s. The findings reveal that history plays a role in the remaking and altering of previous tales, mainly due to the older versions of horror urban legends no longer being relevant or culturally appropriate. Occasionally, the older adaptation of a story will have material or revolve around a subject matter that is no longer acceptable within a more modern society, such as women being shown only as a damsel in distress. Because of this, in order for the story to not be forgotten, it must be remade and altered to align with where the world is today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iv ' )&%+ )%($ %&#&. "B(!(CA ->9)9-);-89-::176 : :37 &&9) :39 7:;&)99) ::40 76;-5879)9@#15-:: :43 76+4<:17647 "B"(&CA ->9)9-);-89-::176 : :47 &&9) :50 7:;&)99) ::51 76;-5879)9@#15-:: :55 76+4<:17659 "#B&CA ->9)9-);-89-::176 : :60 &&9) :61 7:;&)99) ::62 76;-5879)9@#15-:: :68 76+4<:17671 "$"" 7>-5-:0)6/-=-9#15-73 $)- * &'. % # *.73 $)- * +% *.74 $)- * &%, *.74 "7+1-;)40)6/-:75 #*(&*.')75 ' * &%)&&$%78 +#*+(# *)80 "!#"!$#$!!"! #" ##" $" #!!#%(""B(!(C # !!#%(""B"(&CA # !!#%(""#B&CA # "##'#(""B(!(C # "##'#(""B"(&CA # "##'#(""#B&CA !!" v HOW HORROR URBAN LEGENDS CHANGE 6;97,<+;176 “This happened to a friend of a friend” (Slape, 2015). “I know, it sounds crazy, but it really happened” (Altier, 2020). Countless urban legends start off or conclude this way. For centuries, these tales have cultivated society, and are frequently passed off as true, otherworldly accounts of real events (Bennett & Smith, 2013). However, with every new translation, these stories have the ability to shift and mutate until they hardly resemble their own creator’s anecdote (p. 314). Although the aim of each chronicle was to “gratify our desire to know about and to try to understand bizarre, frightening, and potentially dangerous or embarrassing events that /#:have happened,” it is debatable as to why these narratives alter or why they still continue to shift today (Brunvand, 1981, p. 12). In the 21st Century, with the pervasiveness of radio, television and the internet, urban legends have endured. From the headless horseman in search of a new head, to the bloodied woman who appears in the mirror, and even to the man eating monster who stalks the forests, urban legends have burrowed their way into mainstream media (Kennedy, 2019; Fine & Dundes, 2002; Manguel, 2019). In the digital age, however, how and during what circumstances are urban legends most likely to change (Misner, 2008; Brunvand, 1981)? To answer this question, three horror urban legends will be analyzed via narrative and historical context analyses through the lens of meme theory. The legends of “Bloody Mary,” “Sleepy Hollow” and the “Wendigo” will be the main foci of this research due to their cultural narratives being a ubiquitous recurrence within various media forms such as, but not limited to, films, literature and television shows. Each of these urban legends will be treated as memes, otherwise known as a piece of cultural knowledge that circulate and mutate over time and audiences (Dawkins, 1976). With this, this study has the potential to uncover why the media 1 HOW HORROR URBAN LEGENDS CHANGE would rather reiterate centuries-old urban legends, rather than create entirely new material for contemporary audiences. Pertaining specifically to the analysis of this study, the overall objective and elements of each narrative will be analyzed for 30 artifacts, 10 per meme, in order to understand how the tales themselves have changed. In addition, when and where the artifacts were created will be noted, as well as any significant events that occurred contemporaneously to its creation to grasp how outside factors may have led to an urban legend’s adaptation. From there, any specific use of language, ideas and terms will also be analyzed per artifact for additional context. This research has the potential to become a useful addition to the field of communication and folklore due to its findings regarding media and meaning-making. Through uncovering how “Bloody Mary,” “Sleepy Hollow” and the “Wendigo” urban legends have changed over the past century, this study will establish how the media can alter and retell past stories in order for them to remain current and relevant in an ever-changing society. Also, this analysis will serve as a return to the study of communication in conjunction with folklore, and will seek to bridge the gap between rhetorical criticism, contemporary legend studies and history. 1;-9);<9-!-=1-> In order to analyze the changes that occur within urban legends, this research will be exploring communication, folklore studies, and meme theory. These sections will provide necessary information regarding the study of horror urban legends, touch on their place within the media and establish the theory that will be used as the main framework in uncovering how they change over time. Additionally, sections regarding word of mouth communication, computer mediated communication and the most common themes found within horror urban legends have been incorporated as well for useful context. 2 HOW HORROR URBAN LEGENDS CHANGE 9)4";79@;-4416/ Oral traditions were the main means of storytelling prior to the 20th century (Ellis, 1975). Although a number of tales were collected and assembled into storybooks, orated methods were the primary means of reciting urban legends for the majority of human existence (Grimm, 1812; Ong, 1982). Initially the only form of communication, stories would be passed from individual to individual as a way of entertainment or cultural preservation through word of mouth (WOM). These messages were used to disseminate information onto its audience’s ears, often creating them “to cope with and understand the ineffable” reality that existed around them (Misner, 2008, p. 5). Ancient storytellers would use this medium to pass on tales of triumph, heartache, and warnings to the next generation with the hopes that their stories and culture would live on long after they have passed. As described in his book, Ong (1982) explains that a rather large difficulty arises when using strictly WOM communication, with the main problem being that once a message is spoken, the story is gone once the last syllable is uttered.