A model for psychophysiological regeneration of elite team athletes Rachel Elizabeth Venter Dissertation presented for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Sport Science) at Stellenbosch University Promoter: Professor Justus R. Potgieter Co-promoter: Professor Justhinus G. Barnard December 2008 Declaration By submitting this dissertation electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own original work, that I am the owner of the copyright thereof (unless to the extent explicitly otherwise stated) and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. Signature: Date: Rachel Elizabeth Venter Copyright © 2008 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved ii Summary There is general consensus that athletes, striving to compete and perform at the highest level, should optimally balance training and competition stress with adequate regeneration. Although a well-planned training programme is of utmost importance, the time between training sessions and competitions is critical for the modern-day athlete. It is suggested that athletes should apply a variety of recovery methods to enhance the regeneration process. Although team sport is a popular entity throughout the world, there is limited published research on the regeneration process in team athletes and recovery methods to enhance the regeneration process. The aim of this study was to develop a model that could serve as a guideline for the regeneration of team athletes within the South African context. Two phases were involved in the process of developing a model. Phase one involved a research of literature in order to assess which strategies can be implemented for athletic regeneration, and what information team athletes are given for regeneration. The second phase involved an investigation into the recovery strategies that are currently used for regeneration by elite South African team players during the competitive phase of the year. Research questions focused on the recovery methods used by players, the perceived importance of various recovery methods to the players, and the relationship between sport and level of participation in the use of recovery strategies. This study did not attempt to assess the knowledge of the players on recovery methods. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Stellenbosch University. A total of 890 elite South African team sport players (mean age 22.26 ±3.37 years) from hockey (n=213), netball (n=215), rugby (n=317) and soccer (n=145) participated in the study. The total group of players consisted of 57% males (n=507) and 43% females (n=383). Players included in the study had to participate in the highest division of the major competitions and tournaments of their sport during the 2007-season. Of the total group, 75% (n=668) of the players were from national and provincial teams, and 25% (n=222) from A-division club teams. Data were collected by means of a survey through a once-off cross-sectional research design. A self-administered questionnaire, specifically designed for the study, was used for data collection. Informed (written) consent was given and responses iii were treated as confidential and anonymous. The response rate for the total group was 74%. Players had to indicate, amongst others, how they perceived the importance of various recovery methods to their physiological and psychosocial regeneration. The following recovery methods received the highest ratings in terms of importance for the total group (in rank order): sleep, regular healthy meals, fluid intake, prayer, socialise with friends, discussion with teammates after training/match, discussion with coach after training/match, active cool-down, snacks after match, music, and an ice bath. With regard to the recovery methods that players actually used, players had to indicate whether they use the specific recovery method and when they are using it (after training, between training sessions, after matches, on non-training days where applicable). Results revealed that the recovery method that was used the most after training by all players from the four sport codes was an active cool-down. The recovery method used the most after matches by hockey, netball and soccer players was an active cool-down. Rugby players use a strategy for fluid replacement the most. The two recovery methods used the most after matches are the same for the different levels of participation, namely, an active cool-down and a strategy for fluid replacement. Results from the current study showed that the only recovery method that is used on a regular basis is an active cool-down after training and matches by hockey, netball and soccer players. Other recovery methods are not applied regularly. Results from this study suggest that there is a need for athlete and coach education with regard to the use of a variety of recovery methods in the regeneration process of team players. A model is proposed for the psychophysiological regeneration of elite team players that could serve as a guideline for team players within the South African context. The model emphasises a multi-dimensional holistic approach to the regeneration of team athletes. Players experience stress in many areas (e.g., physical, emotional, social) and different regeneration strategies are needed to address these areas. This necessitates a focused and planned strategy for regeneration. Regular monitoring of the fatigue and regeneration status of players through invasive and non-invasive techniques was finally emphasised. Key words: Regeneration; Recovery methods; Elite team athletes; Hockey; Netball; Rugby; Soccer. iv Opsomming Daar word algemeen aanvaar dat sportmense, in hulle strewe om op die hoogste vlak te kompeteer en presteer, ‘n optimale balans moet handhaaf tussen oefen- en kompetisiestres en voldoende regenerasie of herstel. Hoewel ‘n goed-beplande oefenprogram van die uiterste belang is, is die tyd tussen die oefensessies en kompetisies van kritieke belang vir die hedendaagse atleet. Daar word voorgestel dat sportmense ‘n verskeidenheid herstelmetodes moet gebruik in die tye tussen oefensessies en kompetisies om die regenerasieproses aan te help. Hoewel spansport ‘n populêre entiteit is, is daar beperkte gepubliseerde navorsing oor die regenerasieproses by spansportspelers en die herstelmetodes wat hierdie proses kan aanhelp. Die doel van die studie was om ‘n model te ontwikkel wat as ‘n riglyn kan dien vir die regenerasie van elite spansportspelers binne die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks. Twee fases was betrokke in die proses om die model te ontwikkel. In die eerste fase is ‘n literatuurondersoek gedoen om te bepaal watter strategieë geïmplementeer kan word vir regenerasie, asook watter inligting aan spansportspelers gegee word met betrekking tot hulle regenerasie. In die tweede fase is ‘n ondersoek gedoen na die huidige situasie met betrekking tot herstelstrategieë wat deur elite Suid-Afrikaanse spansportspelers gedurende die kompetisiefase van die jaar gebruik word. Navorsingsvrae het gefokus op die herstelmetodes wat deur die spelers gebruik word as deel van ‘n herstelstrategie, die spelers se persepsies van die belangrikheid van verskillende herstelmetodes, asook die verwantskap tussen die herstelmetodes wat gebruik word, die sportsoorte en vlak van deelname. Hierdie studie het nie probeer om die kennis van die spelers met betrekking tot herstelmetodes te bepaal nie. Die studie is goedgekeur deur die Etiese Komitee van die Universiteit Stellenbosch. ‘n Groep van 890 elite Suid-Afrikaanse spansportspelers (gemiddelde ouderdom 22.26 ±3.37 jaar) van hokkie (n=213), netbal (n=215), rugby (n=317) en sokker (n=145) het aan die studie deelgeneem. Die totale groep spelers het uit 57% mans (n=507) en 43% vrouens (n=383) bestaan. Om in die studie ingesluit te word, moes spelers op die hoogste vlak van die belangrikste of grootste kompetisies of toernooie van hulle sport gedurende die 2007- seisoen deelneem. Die totale groep het bestaan uit 75% spelers (n=668) uit nasionale en provinsiale spanne en 25% spelers (n=222) uit A-afdeling spanne. v Data is deur middel van ‘n eenmalige opname ingesamel. ‘n Self-geadministreerde vraelys wat spesifiek vir die studie ontwerp is, is gebruik vir die data-insameling. Ingeligte (geskrewe) toestemming is gegee en response is as vertroulik en anoniem hanteer. Die terugvoerkoers vir die hele groep was 74%. ‘n Aanduiding van die spelers se persepsies oor die belangrikheid van verskillende herstelmetodes vir hulle fisiologiese en sielkundig-sosiale regenerasie is onder andere bepaal. Die volgende herstelmetodes het die hoogste tellings behaal by die hele groep (in rangorde): slaap, gereelde voedsame maaltye, vloeistofinname, gebed, sosialiseer met vriende, bespreking met spanmaats na ‘n oefening of wedstryd, bespreking met afrigter na ‘n oefening of wedstryd, aktiewe afkoeling, peuselhappies na ‘n wedstryd, musiek en ‘n ysbad. Om te bepaal watter herstelmetodes spelers werklik gebruik, moes spelers aandui of hulle ‘n spesifieke metode gebruik asook wanneer hulle die metode gebruik (na oefeninge, tussen oefensessies, na wedstryde, en op nie-oefendae waar van toepassing). Resultate het aangetoon dat ‘n aktiewe afkoeling as herstelmetode die meeste na oefeninge deur al die spelers van die verskillende sportkodes gebruik is. ‘n Aktiewe afkoeling word ook die meeste deur hokkie-, netbal- en sokkerspelers gebruik na wedstryde. Rugbyspelers gebruik ‘n strategie vir vloeistofvervanging die meeste. Die twee herstelmetodes wat die meeste