The Internet and Politics in Morocco The political Use of the Internet by Islam-oriented political movements Dissertation zur Erlangung des Grades der Doktorin bzw. des Doktors der Philosophie Im Fachbereich Sozialwissenschaften der Universität Hamburg Vorgelegt von Mohammed Ibahrine aus Ben Slimane, Marokko Hamburg 2005 Contents List of Tables ........................................................................................................................5 List of Screen Shots..............................................................................................................6 Acknowledgements ..............................................................................................................7 Introduction..........................................................................................................................8 1. Theoretical debate: Overview.......................................................................................31 1.1.1 Reinvigorate democracy....................................................................................33 1.1.2 Universal access ................................................................................................34 1.1.3 Availability of information................................................................................35 1.1.4 Horizontal communication ................................................................................36 1.1.5 Virtual community.............................................................................................38 1.2 Dystopians..................................................................................................................38 1.2.1 Access: Digital inequality..................................................................................38 1.2.2 Information overload .........................................................................................40 1.2.3 Atomisation of the community..........................................................................41 1.2.4 Weakening of democracy ..................................................................................42 1.3 Technorealists............................................................................................................42 1.3.1 Universal access ................................................................................................43 1.3.2 Democracy.........................................................................................................44 1.3.3 Communication .................................................................................................45 1.4. Political use of the Internet .....................................................................................46 1.4.1 Political use of the Internet in developed democracies .....................................47 1.4.1.1 Context ........................................................................................................47 1.4.1.2 Positive ........................................................................................................48 1.4.1.3 Negative.......................................................................................................49 1.4.2 Political use of the Internet in developing democracies....................................51 1.4.2.1 Context ........................................................................................................51 1.4.2.2 Positive ........................................................................................................52 1.4.2.3 Negative.......................................................................................................54 1.4.3 Political use of the Internet in authoritarian countries.......................................55 1.4.3.1 Context ........................................................................................................55 1.4.3.2 Positive ........................................................................................................55 1.4.3.3 Negative.......................................................................................................58 2 The Moroccan national information system.................................................................59 2.1 Historical Development ............................................................................................60 2.1.1 The Press............................................................................................................60 2.1.2 Radio..................................................................................................................62 2.1.3 Television ..........................................................................................................65 2.1.4 Satellites.............................................................................................................67 2.1.5 The Internet........................................................................................................67 2.1.5.1 Fixed Telephone .........................................................................................68 2.1.5.2 Mobile phone ..............................................................................................69 2.1.5.3 Computers ...................................................................................................70 1 2.1.5.4 The Internet ................................................................................................71 2.2 The regime’s use of the media .................................................................................75 2.2.1 Monopoly of the information national system ..................................................76 2.2.2 Control of the national information system.......................................................79 2.2.3 Homogenisation of the national information system.........................................87 3 The Rise of Islam-oriented political movements ..........................................................91 3.1 Genesis .......................................................................................................................92 3.1.1 Economic...........................................................................................................92 3.1.2 Social .................................................................................................................93 3.1.3 Political..............................................................................................................94 3.2 Islam-oriented movements appeal...........................................................................95 3.3 Typology of Islam-oriented movements in Morocco .............................................97 3.3.1 Jama’a At-Tabligh Wad-Dawa..........................................................................98 3.3.2 The Sunni Tendency: From Dawa to militancy ................................................99 3.3.3 Harakat At-Tauhid Wal-Islah: From a group to a party ..................................104 3.3.4 Al-Adl Wal-Ihsan: From a group to a front.....................................................108 3.4 Objectives ................................................................................................................112 3.5 The regime’s reactions to the rise of Islam-oriented movements.......................113 4 Prior-Internet communication strategies ...................................................................117 4.1 Al-Adala Wat-Tanmiya..........................................................................................119 4.1.1 Magazines........................................................................................................119 4.1.2 Audience..........................................................................................................122 4.1.3 Cassettes and Videos .......................................................................................123 4.2 Al-Adl Wal-Ihsan....................................................................................................125 4.2.1 Books...............................................................................................................125 4.2.2 Magazines........................................................................................................128 4.2.3 Audience..........................................................................................................132 4.2.4 Distribution network........................................................................................135 4.2.5 Cassettes and Videos .......................................................................................138 4.3 Objective of the prior-Internet communication strategies .................................140 5 Islam-oriented movements and the Internet ..............................................................143 5.1 Reasons for the use of the Internet by Islam-oriented movements ....................144 5.1.1 Censorship .......................................................................................................144 5.1.2 Economic reasons............................................................................................145 5.1.3 Modernization mark ........................................................................................147 5.1.4 Combating stereotyped representation ............................................................148 5.2 Content analysis of websites...................................................................................150