image: 123rf.com / chombosan Published January 2021 P1-021: Map creation, monitoring and maintenance for automated driving – Literature Review This research is funded by the Department of Transport and Main Roads, RACQ, Queensland University of Technology and iMOVE CRC and supported by the Cooperative Research Centres program, an Australian Government initiative. Report prepared by Stephen Hausler and Michael Milford, 11 December, 2020 Study Partners P1‐021: Map creation, monitoring and maintenance for automated driving – Literature Review Cover image credit: 123rf.com / chombosan 1 Abstract Automated vehicles (AVs) are an emerging new technology which promises to remove some, or all, driving tasks from human control. In recent years technological advances have made automated vehicles increasingly viable, with low levels of automation already in market‐ready vehicles. Transitioning from semi‐autonomous to fully‐autonomous widespread operation is the current problem facing most key AV developers. Challenges include developing reliable autonomous driving solutions for operation in conditions such as heavy traffic, snow, rain, and that reliably detect and interact with vulnerable road users like pedestrians and cyclists. As of writing, only a small number of automated vehicle developers are running trials without any safety driver in the car, and still rely on remote supervision in these cases or a vigilant backup driver in the case of Teslas. Some of the aforementioned difficulties can be alleviated by providing automated vehicles with a prior high definition (HD) map. Prior maps encode road‐level features such as the position of street signs and lane markings, with up‐to centimetre accuracy. This allows for the vehicle to verify the data received by its sensors against the prior map, and to even “fill in the gaps” where the incoming sensor data is limited due to difficulties such as rain or occlusions. Such findings were confirmed by a prior iMOVE Australia, TMR and QUT project titled P1‐007: How Automated Vehicles Will Interact with Road Infrastructure Now and in the Future.1 The objective of this project, a partnership between iMOVE, TMR, RACQ and QUT, is to conduct a comprehensive literature review into the use of prior maps in automated vehicles, with a particular focus on the potential role for government in developing, monitoring and maintaining these maps. Reliably maintaining these prior maps in a manner that is sufficiently responsive to enable the ongoing and safe operation of AVs is a challenge that will likely require some form of collaboration between car manufacturers, map makers and Governments, with agreements concerning geospatial data storage and sharing critical to the future success of automated vehicles. In this report, we discuss the key issues concerning the use of prior maps for automated vehicles. The report contains a detailed review of the technology behind high definition (HD) prior maps for automated vehicles, along with many discussion points based on our literature search, encompassing data from both private companies and overseas Governments. The discussion considers what overseas Governments have done to assist the development and deployment of HD prior maps, what data needs to be shared between Government and private enterprises, and a set of recommendations that would potentially suit the Australian context, considering a range of adoption and partnership strategies going forwards. We hope that this report aids in the development of future projects and policies in Queensland that help facilitate the introduction of sustainably deployable automated vehicles. 1: https://imoveaustralia.com/news‐articles/intelligent‐transport‐systems/autonomous‐vehicles‐australian‐roads/ 1 iMOVE, TMR, QUT and RACQ P1‐021: Map creation, monitoring and maintenance for automated driving – Literature Review Contents 1 Abstract .............................................................................................................................. 1 2 Table of Figures .................................................................................................................. 4 3 Glossary of Terminology and Abbreviations ...................................................................... 6 4 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 8 5 Methodology ...................................................................................................................... 9 6 Overview of Mapping ....................................................................................................... 10 6.1 Technology – Usages of Maps in Automated Vehicles ............................................. 10 6.2 Technology – Types of Maps ..................................................................................... 12 6.2.1 Digital Maps ....................................................................................................... 12 6.2.2 Enhanced Digital Maps ...................................................................................... 12 6.2.3 High Definition Maps ......................................................................................... 13 6.3 Localization ................................................................................................................ 17 6.3.1 Known Industry Solutions .................................................................................. 17 6.3.2 Academic Solutions ............................................................................................ 18 6.4 Technology – Map Creation ...................................................................................... 19 6.5 Technology – Data Formats....................................................................................... 24 6.5.1 Road Elements ................................................................................................... 29 6.6 Technology – Map Updating ..................................................................................... 31 6.6.1 V2I – DENM ........................................................................................................ 33 6.6.2 V2P – TPEG and SENSORIS ................................................................................. 33 6.6.3 I2P – Datex II and TN‐ITS .................................................................................... 34 6.7 Technology – Specific Use‐Cases of Prior HD Maps for Automated Vehicles ........... 37 6.8 Cybersecurity ............................................................................................................. 38 6.9 Summary ................................................................................................................... 39 7 Providers and Users of Maps for Automated vehicles .................................................... 40 7.1 Standard Digital Maps ............................................................................................... 40 7.2 Enhanced Digital Maps .............................................................................................. 41 7.3 Aerial Maps ............................................................................................................... 45 7.4 High Definition (HD) Maps ‐ Overview ...................................................................... 46 7.5 Updating and Maintaining Maps ............................................................................... 47 2 iMOVE, TMR, QUT and RACQ P1‐021: Map creation, monitoring and maintenance for automated driving – Literature Review 7.6 Ownership of Data .................................................................................................... 49 7.7 Summary ................................................................................................................... 49 8 High Definition Maps ....................................................................................................... 50 8.1 TomTom .................................................................................................................... 51 8.2 HERE .......................................................................................................................... 53 8.3 Waymo ...................................................................................................................... 55 8.4 Atlatec ....................................................................................................................... 58 8.5 Nvidia ......................................................................................................................... 59 8.6 Sanborn ..................................................................................................................... 60 8.7 DeepMap ................................................................................................................... 60 8.8 Nutonomy (Aptiv) ...................................................................................................... 60 8.9 Apollo ........................................................................................................................ 61 8.10 Mobileye ................................................................................................................ 61 8.11 General Limitations of Existing Models ................................................................. 61 8.12 Usages of HD Maps Beyond Automated vehicles ................................................