Journal of Counseling Psychology Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association 2008, Vol. 55, No. 1, 19–33 0022-0167/08/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/0022-0167.55.1.19 Toward a Fuller Conception of Machismo: Development of a Traditional Machismo and Caballerismo Scale G. Miguel Arciniega Thomas C. Anderson Arizona State University Chicago, Illinois Zoila G. Tovar-Blank and Terence J. G. Tracey Arizona State University Machismo is an important concept describing men’s behavior in Mexican culture, yet it is not well- defined. Most conceptions of machismo focus on a restricted, negative view of hypermasculinity. The authors posit that a fuller conception consists of 2 parts: traditional machismo and caballerismo, which is a focus on emotional connectedness. The authors developed a scale to measure these dimensions and found support for these 2 independent factors in 2 separate studies of Mexican American men. Traditional Machismo was related to aggression and antisocial behavior, greater levels of alexithymia, and more wishful thinking as a coping mechanism. Caballerismo was positively associated with affiliation, ethnic identity, and problem-solving coping. Traditional Machismo was also associated with less education, whereas there were no differences across education level on Caballerismo scores. These results support the more complete, two-dimensional representation of machismo. Keywords: machismo, male gender roles, Mexican American Although machismo is a term that has been bandied about in Gold, & Prisco, 1992; Mosher & Sirkin, 1984), or as being popular culture and has been the subject of many academic and associated with violence and heavy drinking (Alaniz, 1996; Neff, literary articles, it has continued to defy a clear definitional de- Prihoda, & Hoppe, 1991). Mayo and Resnick (1996) pointed out scription. Machismo vaguely refers to a standard of behavior that machismo among Latino men typically involves the domina- exhibited by men in Mexican culture. Some definitions are “The tion of women, who are viewed as responsible for raising children masculine force, which to one degree or another drives all mas- and serving men. Researchers who have looked at machismo as a culine behavior” (Andrade, 1992, p. 34), “An ethos comprised of psychological construct almost uniformly characterized machismo behaviors prized and expected of men in Latin American coun- as something aggressive and hypermasculine. Indeed, research on tries” (Panitz, McConchie, Sauber, & Fonseca, 1983, p. 32), and machismo is frequently tautological; a common occurrence in “Mexican men’s manifestation of perceived male characteristics, research is to assume machismo is violent and aggressive and to both positive and negative” (Arciniega, Tovar-Gamero, & Sand, create a measure that measures machismo as defined by aggressive 2004). acts or beliefs. In the majority of the popular literature, the term has continued However, some scholars have argued against this negative con- to be associated with the negative characteristics of sexism, chau- ception of machismo as being too restrictive (e.g., Casas, Wagen- vinism, and hypermasculinity (Anders, 1993; Ingoldsby, 1991; heim, Banchero, & Mendoza-Romero, 1994; Felix-Ortiz, Abreu, Mosher & Tompkins, 1988). Writers, such as Imhof (1979), de- Briano, & Bowen, 2001; Mirande´, 1988, 1997; Penalosa, 1968; scribed macho men as violent, rude, womanizing, and prone to Ramos, 1979; Rodriguez, 1996). In a survey of Latino men, alcoholism. Anders (1993) cited authors from various disciplines Mirande´(1988) found that 52% described machismo as a largely who typified macho men as incompetent, as domineering through negative construct, 12% described it as a neutral concept, and 35% intimidation, and as seducing and controlling women. described it as a source of pride and honor. The results of this study Psychological literature, with few exceptions, has also endorsed point out that the positive aspects of male behavior are frequently the concept of machismo as having only negative characteristics, neglected, and thus, an inadequate picture of Mexican American such as violent, aggressive, and sexualized behaviors (Beaver, male behavior is generated. Mirande´(1997) noted that the problems of past research were the focus on only negative aspects of machismo. Mirande´(1988) began looking at machismo qualitatively by reviewing stories, G. Miguel Arciniega, Zoila G. Tovar-Blank, and Terence J. G. Tracey, myths, and organized interviews. Mirande´ (1997) used focus Counseling Psychology Program, Division of Psychology in Education, groups and historical examination of the evolution of machismo in College of Education, Arizona State University; Thomas C. Anderson, Independent Practice, Chicago, Illinois. Mexico to develop his Mirande´’s Sex Role Inventory (Mirande´, Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to G. 1997). Mirande´’s Sex Role Inventory used both positive and Miguel Arciniega, 302 Payne Hall, MC 0611, Arizona State University, negative statements in an attempt to capture the diverse meanings Tempe, AZ 85287-0611. E-mail: [email protected] attributed to machismo. Mirande´(1997) assumed that there were 19 20 ARCINIEGA, ANDERSON, TOVAR-BLANK, AND TRACEY multiple masculinities being composed of positive and negative behavior in Mexican and Mexican American (i.e., American citi- elements (e.g., traditionalism, toughness, and sensitivity). zens of Mexican descent) men. We made a distinction between Mirande´’s view of machismo is one that is more encompassing traditional machismo, which focuses on individual power and than earlier work on machismo because this view includes more hypermasculinity and which is perceived as negative, and cabal- than just negative aspects of hypermasculinity. lerismo, which focuses on social responsibility and emotional Within the field of psychology and sociology, the growing trend connectedness and which is perceived as positive. We use the term is toward a more bidimensional assessment of machismo. To machismo to refer to the broad concept and the terms traditional varying degrees, machismo in the Mexican and the Mexican machismo and caballerismo to refer to our specific underlying American community is being defined as a construct that is both constructs that make up machismo. positive and negative (Casas et al., 1994; Mirande´, 1997; Neff, As such, our aim was to determine whether machismo was best 2001). Various researchers concerned with the balanced represen- represented by the two separate dimensions of traditional ma- tation of machismo within Mexican and Mexican American cul- chismo and caballerismo. To assess this, we needed a full, repre- tures have often pointed out the positive characteristics consistent sentative sample of Mexican American male behaviors. By devel- with machismo: nurturance, protection of the family and its honor, oping a broader item pool, we enabled a better determination of the dignity, wisdom, hard work, responsibility, spirituality, and emo- structure of machismo. We anticipated that factor analysis would tional connectedness (Casas et al., 1994; Mirande´, 1988, 1997; yield support for a two-dimensional representation of machismo: Ramos, 1979). that of traditional machismo (negative side of machismo) and Positive descriptors of machismo appear to resemble qualities caballerismo (positive side of machismo). associated with the word caballerismo. Caballerismo originates in If it was valid to represent traditional machismo and caballer- the Spanish word for horse and horseman—caballo and caballero, ismo as separate aspects of male Mexican American behavior, it respectively (Caballero, 2003). Caballerismo refers to a code of was then imperative to understand how these two separate con- masculine chivalry, an English term that also stems from the structs manifested themselves. Examinations of their convergent original Latin root caballus. Like the English chivalric code, and discriminant validity were needed to establish their construct caballerismo developed out of a medieval sociohistorical class validity. Study 1 describes the development of a machismo mea- system in which people of wealth and status owned horses for sure and the construct validity of this measure as it related to transportation and other forms of horsepower. Thus, caballero several aspects of psychological functioning (e.g., emotional con- referred to a land-owning Spanish gentleman of high station who nectedness, antisocial behaviors, and psychological well-being). was master of estates and/or ranches (i.e., haciendas). Comparable Study 1 resulted in a shorter version of the Machismo Measure and English terms are cavalier and knight. Over time and centuries of the identification of the two subscales as Traditional Machismo usage on both sides of the Atlantic, caballero evolved to signify a and Caballerismo. In Study 2, we used the Machismo Measure Spanish gentleman with proper, respectful manners, living by an from Study 1 and focused on ethnic identity, alexithymia, coping ethical code of chivalry (i.e., caballerismo; C. Candelaria, personal styles, and well-being. If machismo could be viewed with the two communication, July 13, 2007). constructs of Traditional Machismo and Caballerismo, each of Moreover, if we look back to the origins of the folklore of these subscales should be differentially related in predictable ways caballerismo, we would have to go back to the 16th century to these external psychological functioning variables. Spanish romances of chivalry, such as