This electronic thesis or dissertation has been downloaded from the King’s Research Portal at https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/ The ‘Creole Indian’ The emergence of East Indian civil society in Trinidad and Tobago, c.1897-1945 Kissoon, Feriel Nissa Awarding institution: King's College London The copyright of this thesis rests with the author and no quotation from it or information derived from it may be published without proper acknowledgement. END USER LICENCE AGREEMENT Unless another licence is stated on the immediately following page this work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ You are free to copy, distribute and transmit the work Under the following conditions: Attribution: You must attribute the work in the manner specified by the author (but not in any way that suggests that they endorse you or your use of the work). Non Commercial: You may not use this work for commercial purposes. No Derivative Works - You may not alter, transform, or build upon this work. Any of these conditions can be waived if you receive permission from the author. Your fair dealings and other rights are in no way affected by the above. Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact [email protected] providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 03. Oct. 2021 THE ‘CREOLE INDIAN’: THE EMERGENCE OF EAST INDIAN CIVIL SOCIETY IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO, c.1897-1945 by Feriel Nissa Kissoon A thesis submitted to the Department of History In conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy King’s College, University of London London, United Kingdom June 2014 1 ABSTRACT Between 1838 when slavery ended, and 1917, some 143,939 Indians came to Trinidad as indentured labourers. This thesis examines how these migrants pulled from all over the subcontinent, first organised themselves as ‘East Indians’, and then came to demand civic and political rights as Trinidadians from 1897 to1945. Central to this process was the emergence of the ‘Creole Indian’. This group stood distinct both from those who understood themselves as Indian sojourners in the West Indies, and from the African and European elements of the population. This dissertation explores how Indians responded to the plantation experience, the demands and pressures of British planters and colonial administrators, Canadian Presbyterian missionaries and educators, Afro- Trinidadian trade unionism and political nationalism, nationalists in India, and the wider transnational anti-colonial networks which spanned the British Empire. The school, the trade union, temple and mosque were spaces where immigrants and their descendants negotiated new ways of imagining their status as Indians abroad, as subjects of the British Empire, as Indians and West Indians. These negotiations did not move in a homogenous or linear way, but their consequence was to constitute new kinds of identities, embodied in a variety of kinds of political claims, some for special spaces in the society, but more generally for a fuller enjoyment of membership in civic and political rights. There were many competing interests, and there was no single Indian interest or movement. One of the aims of the thesis is to trace the variety of groups, interests, and perspectives which emerged among migrants. To map this complex field of sentiment and organisation helps us to understand better where the ethnic and religious political cleavages which have characterised Trinidad politics since the 1950s have some of their origins. But it is also perhaps, to explore paths not taken, and alternative negotiations of the civic identity of people of East Indian descent as Trinidadians and West Indian. In general, this dissertation is a contribution to the cultural history of politics in twentieth-century Trinidad. Key words: Creole, diaspora, indigeneity, transnationalism, Trinidad, race, indenture, anti- colonial movement 2 Acknowledgements The support for this thesis has truly been a transnational experience. Research was carried out in Canada, Trinidad and Tobago, India and the United Kingdom. Given the range of experiences, advice and people I have met over the last few years, the following list remains incomplete. First, I would like to thank the conscientious librarians and archivists in each respective country. In Canada, the archivists and librarians at the Presbyterian Church Archives, the United Church Archives of Canada and at The University of Toronto were extremely helpful and patient in helping me access the information I required. In India, I am indebted to Jaya Ravindran, the Assistant Director of the National Archives, Dr. Mushirul Hasan, Director of the National Archives, and Dr. Prabhu Mohupatra of Delhi University. During my stay in Trinidad, the archivists and library staff at the National Archives of Trinidad and Tobago, at the Oilfield Worker’s Trade Worker’s Union in San Fernando and at the West Indiana Collection at the Alma Jordan Library, University of the West Indies, offered invaluable assistance. In England, the expertise and kindness of the staff at the National Archives, at Kew Gardens, the British Library, Senate House Library, Institute of Commonwealth Studies and at the Foyle Special Collections, King’s College made endeavours for getting material for this project a little easier. At Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU) India, I would like to thank Professors Rajat Datta and Neeladri Bhattacharya for making my stay as a visiting student a rewarding experience. Their constructive criticism of my work, as well as their readiness to assist did not go unnoticed. At the University of Toronto, many thanks to Dr. Melanie Newton for her comments on draft chapters. While at the University of the West Indies in St.Augustine, Trinidad, meetings with Professor Bridget Brereton and Dr(s). Sherry-Ann Singh and Rita Pemberton were of great benefit. In particular, I would like to thank Professor Brinsley Samaroo for taking me to the site of his current project which is the creation of a Sugar Museum at Brechin Castle. Moreover, his keen insights on my own research were invaluable. During my research visits in Trinidad, I had the honour of having conversations with Dr. Anna Mahase (former principal of St. Augustine Girls’ High School), David Abdullah (General Secretary of the Oilfield Worker’s Trade Union), Raffique Shah and Basdeo Panday (former Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago). These meetings were key moments that set the tone for successive chapters. 3 This thesis would not have been possible without the patient, firm hand of my supervisor Professor Richard Drayton. Without his guidance and expertise, many of the ideas for this project would not have come to full fruition. His perceptive comments, tempered with enthusiasm and support, motivated me to become a better writer and researcher, and to think more critically about my sources. As well, the quality of this project was enhanced by comments from Dr. Jon Wilson. I am thankful for his efforts in engineering my visit to JNU. Also, this thesis was supported by keen insights from Dr. Sarah Stockwell. Additionally, I owe my gratitude to Harold Drayton, Andrew Lewis and Peter Lovrick for their comments on this thesis and proofreading skills. I would like to thank the scholars I met at the Imperial and World History and the Colonial and Post Colonial New Researchers Workshops at the Institute of Historical Research. Indeed, many of the ideas located this thesis were inspired by a host of presentations I attended at these seminars. I would also like to thank Professor Jane-Errington and Dr. Ariel Salzmann at Queen’s University, Canada who encouraged me to pursue a doctorate. To all my friends in all four locations: Claire Cookson-Hills, Rob Engen, Madelaine Morrison, Dr. Emma Alexander, Dr. Marlene Miller, Santan and Omega Demello, Yvonne Doobay, Preeti Desodiya, Nancy Abwalaba, Samira Verma, Vibha Prasad, Hazera Khatun, Daniel Grey, Leslie James, Chris Wright, Reuben Bard- Rosenberg, Shomik Dasgupta, and Thomas James Newbold, thank you so much for the countless hours spent with me in conversation. To my family: Aunt Dianne and Uncle Ken Lakhan, thank you for your patience and for keeping me safe and well-fed. To Uncles Deosaran, Chanda, Rammy and Harry Kissoon, and all the cousins, thank you showing me my roots through those endless conversations in the village and garden. To Sandra and Charlotte St. Martin who made London my home and who reminded me to laugh once in a while. To Adam White, whose pragmatism helped me to see the horizon of this project, and who kept on reminding me that the future is still uncharted territory. To my Dad, Mum and sister- Clint, Maria and Natasha Kissoon- thank you so much for your unwavering love, faith, and constant support during the course of this project. And above all, my deepest gratitude to my grandfather, the late Abdul Razac, who taught me from my early childhood to walk tall and to hold my head high. Gramps, (G.P), your stories, words of wisdom and our walks fill the silences of this thesis. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract.........................................................................................................................2 Acknowledgements.......................................................................................................3 Table of Contents...........................................................................................................5