CULTURAL PRESERVATION AND SELF-DETERMINATION THROUGH LAND USE PLANNING: A FRAMEWORK FOR THE FORT ALBANY FIRST NATION by DANIEL PAUL MINKIN A thesis submitted to the School of Urban and Regional Planning In conformity with the requirements for the degree of Master of Urban and Regional Planning Queen’s University Kingston, Ontario, Canada September, 2008 Copyright © Daniel Paul Minkin, 2008 To Ezra who shone in the world briefly and brilliantly while I was writing this. ii ABSTRACT The Fort Albany First Nation (FAFN) in Ontario’s western James Bay region is interested in undertaking a community-based process of land use planning for its traditional territory, in order to respond to increasing resource development pressure within the area. To construct a framework for such a process, semi-structured interviews were held with 12 members of the FAFN and two staff members of the Mushkegowuk Council, which represents the FAFN at the regional level. Interviews focused on the substantive values that community members see as worthy of protection or management through the land use plan, and on the procedural values that ought to guide the process. In addition, three group discussions on valued ecosystem components were observed, to supplement interview data on substantive values. The results indicate that the community is concerned with preserving their way of life in the face of resource development pressure and social change, by protecting subsistence resources and strengthening the transmission of culture. Substantively, this means that the land use plan needs to protect wildlife and its habitat, navigable waterways, and water quality. Procedurally, this means that the planning process should engage the entire community in discussions of its cultural identity and connection to the land, in order to build a genuine consensus on appropriate land uses. It was felt that the process should be grassroots-based, that the FAFN should initiate the process autonomously, and that the planning process should pursue the twin goals of community self-determination and cultural continuity. It was also felt that neighbouring first nations should be invited to participate in the process or to conduct separate planning activities streamlined with those of the FAFN, because of overlap in traditional territories. iii At the conclusion of this thesis, a set of recommendations outlines a planning process that is appropriate to the needs and values expressed by participants. This framework draws upon the principles of empowerment, advocacy, and collaborative planning, applying them to the local cultural context. It relies upon social learning as a vehicle by which to develop a community-wide vision for the traditional territory of the FAFN. iv EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The western James Bay region of northeastern Ontario is set to experience new development in the resource sector. At issue is the extent to which the Mushkego Cree communities that constitute much of the western James Bay population will be able to participate in the resource development decisions that affect their traditional territory. One such community, the Fort Albany First Nation (FAFN), is interested in undertaking a community-based land use planning process for its traditional territory. The purpose of the participatory action research presented in this thesis is to develop a framework for the planning process that is appropriate to the values, culture, and needs of the community. A review of the literature on selected trends in planning theory, Aboriginal issues in Canada, and land use planning involving first nations informs a conceptual framework suggesting how a land use planning process might unfold in the FAFN context. The conceptual framework envisions the process as an exercise in community empowerment, with the planning practitioner contributing as an advocate-facilitator. A planning process based on social learning and communicative action from the grassroots level would be used to achieve a system of land use zones to protect traditional land-based activities, in order to ensure sustainability and cultural continuity. A series of semi-structured interviews were held with members of the FAFN, as well as staff of the Mushkegowuk Council, a tribal council representing the FAFN and neighbouring first nations. Interviews focused on the substantive values that community members see as warranting protection or management through the land use plan, and on the procedural values that ought to guide the process. In addition, three group v discussions within the FAFN on valued ecosystem components were observed, to supplement interview data on substantive values. The results suggest that the planning process should pursue the dual goals of protecting the community’s subsistence resources and re-strengthening cultural identity. The most important substantive values to be planned for are as follows, in approximate order of prominence in the data: • Food resources, particularly moose, fish, geese, berries, and other animals and plants. Participants stressed that the land continues to be their grocery store, and that wildlife remains important to nutrition and food security in the community. • Travel routes, specifically navigable rivers. Participants spoke of rivers as their highways, used to access subsistence resources and neighbouring communities by boat. Participants expressed mixed feelings on the development of transportation infrastructure, as it would bring both economic opportunity and social threats. • Water resources, specifically potable groundwater. Participants valued local rivers as an important source of drinking water. • Economic development and revenue, referring to the various financial and employment-related benefits that might be afforded to the community from resource development. Participants felt that the community would need to be diligent to ensure both that appropriate benefits accrue to the community, and that sudden generation of revenue does not exacerbate social problems such as substance abuse. • Fur and traplines, described as both a subsistence and a commercial resource. Trapping was the only traditional land use that was described as taking place within territories with rigid boundaries to which individual families had exclusive rights. vi • Forest and timber resources. While the forests surrounding the FAFN are probably too marginal to support commercial forestry, they are valued as fuel, building material and wildlife habitat. • Recreation. Participants valued the opportunities afforded by the natural landscape for family bonding and individual spiritual healing. The procedural values and issues identified by participants were as follows: • Decision-making and engagement. Participants indicated that consensus-based decision-making and small group discussion are culturally appropriate models. • Knowledge transfer and tradition, most notably transmission of culture between generations. There was concern among participants that degradation of cultural identity and knowledge is compromising community sustainability, and participants felt that cultural transmission should be part of the planning process. • Land title, that is, the question of collective versus individualistic claim to particular territories. Participants felt that traditional understandings of collective land title were being challenged by contemporary, individualistic values, and the planning process would need to seek consensus on the question. • Inclusion of other communities in the planning process, specifically neighbouring first nations. Participants noted that communities’ traditional territories overlap in the area, and there therefore needs to be a mechanism for inter-community participation in the planning process. • Area of interest, which would need to be determined through study of the distribution of land use by the FAFN. vii • Stewardship and environmental protection, which were described by participants as key cultural values. Zoning of permitted and excluded uses based on environmental impact was seen as an appropriate way to apply this value through land use planning. The recommendations offered in Chapter 6 of this thesis form a suggested framework for the FAFN land use planning process. The following is a condensed summary of the full set of recommendations. Background Research • The FAFN should carry out a community mapping exercise, seeking input on the locations of traditional activities from all community members who participate in such activities. • Consultants should be retained to carry out studies on historical land use and occupation, traditional ecological knowledge about the land base, baseline ecological and development condition, and development pressure. • The Mushkegowuk Council should assist the FAFN in processing and storing this data in GIS form. • The FAFN should determine the planning area based on the community mapping and historical land use data, in consultation with neighbouring communities. Plan-making • The FAFN should form a working group to lead the planning process, and retain a planner with appropriate expertise to facilitate planning sessions and draft the plan. • The FAFN should use the various media at its disposal to maximize awareness within the community of the planning process and of the opportunities for involvement. viii • The planner should facilitate a series of family or small group meetings to discuss preferred land use restrictions in detail, and ensure that all community members have an opportunity to participate in a small