Dependence for Independence: Economic Transformation and Its Implications for Women’s Perceptions of Autonomy in Cambodia SOHEANG PAK A thesis submitted to fulfil requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences University of Sydney 2019 For Female Garment Workers Author’s Declaration This is to certify that the content of this thesis is my original work. It contains no material that has been presented for a degree or diploma of any university. To my knowledge, it contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where duly acknowledged in the text. Signature: Name: Soheang PAK Date: 21st February 2019 i Acknowledgement Writing a book is an adventure. To begin with it is a toy and amusement. Then it becomes a mistress, then it becomes a master, then it becomes a tyrant. The last phase is that just as you are about to be reconciled to your servitude, you kill the monster and fling him to the public. Winston Churchill How right Winston Churchill was. Writing this thesis has been all these things and more, a process that was already like fighting a monster of confusion when my three- year-old son’s pediatrician told me, “He has an incurable disease: Autism”. My world turned upside down. A new set of arrangements had to be made, and I moved to Melbourne so I could live closer to my two brothers who could help me at this difficult point in my life. I continued my studies at The University of Sydney by distance, while my marriage struggled and we had to learn how best to care for our son. I could not have dealt with these issues while completing this thesis without the support of others. It would simply have been impossible. I would like to extend my thanks and appreciation for help and encouragement to a number of people and organisations. First, I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. Dinesh Wadiwel and Dr. Elisabeth Valiente-Riedl, who patiently and thoughtfully supervised my candidature from start to completion. They have guided me not only by providing invaluable academic advice, but a strong sense of understanding, constant encouragement and care. It is my good fortune to have had both of them as my supervisors. I owe Dr. Wadiwel a great deal. He has been not just an academic supervisor, but often felt like a big brother to whom I could tell anything, and from whom I could seek advice any time I felt despair. Dr. Wadiwel – it is due to your support and understanding that I am now able to write these acknowledgments and express my sincere thanks to both you and Dr. Valiente- Riedl for helping me to finish this thesis. I also wish to express my deepest appreciation to Nikki Savvides for her great work editing the whole thesis. I wish to thank my participants in Cambodia who not only gave me their time for the interviews, but who put their trust in me, allowing me access to the valuable information I obtained conducting this research by meeting with me not just once but two times. Thank you for taking part in the interviews and sharing so much fascinating ii information about your lives and experiences. This thesis is dedicated to you. Likewise, I wish to express my deepest appreciation to CARE International, especially Ms. Pysal Eart, Ms. Kalyan Rath and Ms. Sokharany Koeut, who helped me to approach the participants. The participants’ trust in CARE meant they did not hesitate to participate in my research. I also would like to extend my sincere thanks to Ms. Bophana Ros, a female judge who has agreed to consider any issues the participants might want to raise both about their working in factories and their concerns getting involved with this study. I am sincerely thankful for the Australia’s Aid Program (AusAID), which, through its Australian Leadership Award (ALA) scholarship, funded my study at the University of Sydney from January 2014 to February 2018. Special thanks go to the scholarship team staff at the university – Amy Wan, Annie Dinh, Susan Sullivan, Georgina Donovan, Bojan Bozic and Luigi Caparo Flores – for their excellent assistance and friendship for the period of my doctoral candidature. I also owe a great to my university for their generosity waiving my fees for the last three months of my study, and for the travel grants that allowed me to conduct my second round of fieldwork successfully. Without their support, I would not have been able to complete my thesis before returning home to Cambodia. I am also very thankful for Dr. Bronwen Dyson, who guided me on how to write my thesis. Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends. A heartfelt thank-you goes to my parents, Vichith Pak and Khan Sohen, whose love and belief in me have been the source of my confidence and diligence. I would also like to thank my husband, Chea Vey, for his tenacity and true love throughout these hard years. I am very sorry for the stress I placed on you as the product of my academic pressure. To my two adorable sons, Richie and Jamie, a very special thanks to you both for your being the reasons I carry on. Your smiles brighten my days, and your health condition, Richie, has taught me life will not always go the way I want it to, so I need to learn how to adjust and be calm. My thankfulness also extends to my three brothers, Kimchoeun Pak, who has been like another supervisor to me, Sam Ang Pak and Socheath Pak, and to my friends, Sopheap Hoeung, who helped me by proofreading my thesis, and Sreytouch Vong and Samedy Suong, for their companionship during these years. iii Abstract Economic empowerment is a potential strategy to improve women’s autonomy in the Global South. The emergence of export-oriented factories in urban areas, such as Phnom Penh, the capital city of Cambodia, have created forms of low wage labour, such as garment work, as drivers of social, political and economic change. This study documents the experiences and perceptions of female workers in the low wage garment industry in Cambodia. Through in-depth qualitative interviews with a cohort of low wage garment workers, using a longitudinal methodology, this project examines how rural women’s migration to the city to engage in paid employment contributes to perceptions of autonomy in their personal lives as well as in their workplaces. The study utilizes the capability approach framework suggested by Amarty Sen (1985) as an analytical tool to understand whether female rural-urban migrants achieve capabilities and experience flourishing as a result of paid employment. This study finds, in agreement with at least some current research, that women’s access to low wage employment does not necessarily contribute to their improved autonomy in the workplace. However, factory work contributes much to a transformation in women’s future work potentialities and personal lives. The women interviewed in this study gained autonomy in identifiable areas, such as opportunities for self-improvement by acquiring new skills. In relation to women’s personal lives, this study shows work in the garment sector can create a space for women where they can challenge traditional social and cultural norms by asserting their autonomy in choosing partners/husbands, renegotiating parental expectations, and reorganizing the gendered patterns of domestic labour within their households. This study also notes that strong social and cultural norms persist as forms of social protection, and therefore female rural-urban migrant workers cannot fully experience life outside those norms. This can compromise the potential of economic transformation to completely change patriarchal social norms and their impacts on the lives of Khmer women. iv Table of contents Author’s Declaration .................................................................................................. i Acknowledgement ...................................................................................................... ii Abstract ...................................................................................................................... iv Table of contents ........................................................................................................ v Table of Figures ....................................................................................................... vii Abbreviations and Acronyms ................................................................................ viii Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................ 1 1.1 Rationales and research questions .............................................................................. 4 1.2 The case study ............................................................................................................... 6 1.3 Research Methodology ................................................................................................. 9 1.4 Outline of the thesis .................................................................................................... 11 Chapter 2: Contextual Understanding on Cambodia and Gender Norms ......... 13 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 13 2.2 Brief background on Cambodia ................................................................................ 13 2.3 Political, economic and social structure ................................................................... 15 2.4 Labour relations in Cambodia .................................................................................