American Mineralogist, Volume 63. pages 219-229, 1978 The origins of color in minerals KURT NASSAU Bell Laboratories Murray Hill, New Jersey 07974 Abstract Four formalisms are outlined. Crystal field theory explains the color as well as the fluores- cence in transition-metal-containing minerals such as azurite and ruby. The trap concept, as part of crystal field theory, explains the varying stability of electron and hole color centers with respect to light or heat bleaching, as well as phenomena such as thermoluminescence. The molecular orbital formalism explains the color of charge transfer minerals such as blue sapphire and crocoite involving metals, as well as the nonmetal-involving colors in lazurite, graphite and organically colored minerals. Band theory explains the colors of metallic minerals; the color range black-red-orange- yellow-colorless in minerals such as galena, proustite, greenockite, diamond, as well as the impurity-caused yellow and blue colors in diamond. Lastly, there are the well-known pseudo- chromatic colors explained by physical optics involving dispersion, scattering, interference, and diffraction. Introduction The approach here used is tutorial in nature and references are given for further reading or, in some Four distinct physical theories (formalisms) are instances, for specific examples. Color illustrations of required for complete coverage in the processes by some of the principles involved have been published which intrinsic constituents, impurities, defects, and in an earlier less technical version (Nassau, 1975a). specific structures produce the visual effects we desig- Specific examples are given where the cause of the nate as color. All four are necessary in that each color is reasonably well established, although reinter- provides insights which the others do not when ap- pretations continue to appear even in materials, such plied to specific situations. An outline with examples as smoky quartz (Nassau, 1975b), which have been is given in Table I. extensively investigated over many years. This classification goes well beyond the traditional Specific causes for color in the majority of minerals idiochromatic ("self-colored," as from a major in- are in fact not known, and detailed investigations, gredient), allochromatic ("other-colored," as from often requiring precision spectroscopy, impurity an impurity), and pseudochromatic ("false-colored" analysis down to ppm levels, magnetic resonance, as originating from physical optical effects), although and sometimes radiation and even laboratory syn- these three are, in fact, indirectly included in several thetic procedures, may be necessary for unambiguous places in Table I. The current approaches transcend conclusions. As an example, the deep blue of dia- the conventional wisdom which attempts to attribute monds such as the "H ope" almost certainly origi- blue-green colors to copper, deep blue to cobalt, red nates in merely a few boron atoms per million of or green to chromium, and so on. To give only one carbon atoms (this also provides the electrical con- example: deep blue colors may be produced by ductivity). Previously the blue color had been attrib- idiochromatic copper (shattuckite), allochromatic uted to aluminum present at much higher concentra- cobalt (blue spinel), by a color center (M axixe-type tion, but synthesis demonstrates that aluminum in irradiated beryl), by charge transfer between iron and this instance does not produce a blue color, whereas titanium (blue sapphire), by molecular orbital effects boron does (Chrenko, 1973). in S3 units (lapis lazuli), by boron acceptors in a Many different systems of designation are used for band gap (blue diamond), and by pseudochromatic the energy of quantized systems (e.g. energy as wave light interference (blue regions in opal). numbers in cm-I, electron volts eV, kcaIlmole, etc.; 0003-004X/78/0304-0219$02.00 219 220 NASSAU: COLOR IN MINERALS Table I. Twelve types of color in minerals Color Cause Typical minerals Formalism Transition metal compounds Almandite, malachite, turquoise Crystal field theory Transition metal impurities Citrine, emerald, ruby Crystal field theory Color centers Amethyst, fluorite, smoky quartz Crystal field theory Charge transfer Blue sapphire, crocoite, lazurite Molecular orbital theory Organic materials Amber, coral, graphite Molecular orbital theory Conductors Copper, iron, silver Band theory Semiconductors Galena, proustite, pyrite, sulfur Band theory Doped semiconductors Blue diamond, yellow diamond Band theory Dispersion "Fire" in faceted gems Physical optics Scattering Moonstone, "stars", "eyes" Physical optics Interference Iridescent chalcopyrite Physical optics Diffraction Opal Physical optics or the equivalent light wavelength in nm, J.Lm,or A, There are no unpaired electrons when all electron or its frequency in see-lor Hertz, Hz). The eV scale shells are completely full or empty as in Cr6+, CeH, used in this article and its relationship to the spec- or Cu+, when this type of color cannot result. Of trally pure colors is illustrated in Figure I. these transition elements, Fe is the most plentiful (about 5% of the earth's crust) and is therefore the The crystal field formalism dominant color contributor in minerals. Color best explained by the crystal field formalism Consider now a mineral containing, say, some tri- involves predominantly ionic crystals containing ions valent chromium. The electronic configuration of with unpaired electrons. These usually originate in Cr3+ is Is22s22p63s23p63tf; here only the three un- elements with partially filled d shells such as V, Cr, paired electrons in the 3d shell can interact with vis- Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, and Cu, or in elements with partially ible light so as to produce absorption and color. Due filled f shells such as the actinides and lanthanides. to the quantization of energy, a system such as Cr3+ can exist only in a limited number of states, the "energy levels." These energy levels can be shown on ELECTRON WAVELENGTH VOLTS a diagram such as Figure 2, by their energy content COLOR CX,) lev) with respect to the "ground state," i.e. the state of the U ion when it is not interacting with any kind of radia- L SW 2537 T tion and is in its lowest energy state. R A V I 4 0 L D E LW 3660 3 T VIOLET------ 4000 3 t BLUE INCREASING C INCREASING 5000 Q) TEMPERATURE GREEN ENERGY > YELLOW ~B 2 >- <00: 7000 W RED RED-------- ---- Z FLUORESCENCE w uw I z z N 0 w 10,000---- ;:: <J)u F a. w R 0: 0: A <J)0 0 <D ::> -' R " "- E A ABSORPTION ABSORPTION D 0 A A _ 0- 101 Ibl IC) Idi Ie) If I EMERALD (a) (b) (c) RUBY Fig. I. Colors, wavelengths (A), and energy (eV) for spectral Fig. 2. Energy levels, transitions, and color absorptions in ruby pure light (SW is short and LW long wavelength ultraviolet). (a) to (e) and in emerald (f). NASSAU: COLOR IN MINERALS 221 The actual calculation of such energy levels is quite field is well illustrated by comparing ruby to emerald, complex and, for a given atom, has to include the in which Cr3+ also substitutes for AI3+. The distorted following parameters: the valence state, the symmetry six-coordinated site and AI-O distances in emerald of the ion's environment (i.e. the coordination poly- are similar to those in ruby, but the effect of the hedron of charges which produces the "crystal field," added Be and Si and the change in structure from the also sometimes called the "ligand field") including hexagonal close-packed oxygen framework of Alz03 any distortions from ideal tetrahedral, octahedral, to the more open structure of Be3AlzSis018 leads to etc.; and the strength of the crystal field, i.e. the metal-oxygen bonds of higher covalency than in nature and strength of the bonding. The result of ruby, a lower electron density on the oxygens, and such a calculation is an energy level scheme such as accordingly produces a crystal field of reduced that of ruby, (about 1% Cr3+ substituted for AI3+ in strength. The resulting relatively small shifts of the C the distorted octahedral sites of Alz03 with very and D absorption bands in Figure 2f essentially elimi- strong bonding resulting in an Al-O distance of 1.91 nate the red transmission but intensify the blue-green A) shown in Figure 2a. transmission, leading to the characteristic emerald The crystal field calculation not only gives the ex- color. The fluorescence level B is almost unchanged, cited energy levels (only the first three are shown in and here again the strong red fluorescence adds to the Figure 2a) with respect to the ground state A, but quality of the gemstone color when not quenched by also a set of "selection rules," covering the probabil- iron impurities. A similar change in crystal field re- ity of parallel electron paths. For example, excitation sults in a change from red to green as the concentra- (light absorption) can result in this instance in a tion of CrZ03 in Alz03 is increased, resulting in a less change from the ground state A to states C and D ionic bonding and a reduced crystal field. with high probability, but the change from A to B is Alexandrite (Cr3+ in AlzBe04) has an absorption relatively forbidden (Fig. 2b). De-excitation cannot scheme intermediate between those of ruby (Fig. 2e) occur from D or C back to A but must first pass and emerald (Fig. 2f). The almost equally balanced through state B with the emission of heat to the red and blue-green transmission bands result in the lattice as in Figure 2c; this can now be followed by eye perceiving either the one or the other as domi- light emission, the red fluorescence