Scholarly Undergraduate Research Journal at Clark Volume 2 Article 4 April 2016 Shifting Understandings of Lesbianism in Imperial and Weimar Germany Meghan C. Paradis Clark University Follow this and additional works at: https://commons.clarku.edu/surj Part of the Comparative Literature Commons, Cultural History Commons, European History Commons, German Literature Commons, History of Gender Commons, Intellectual History Commons, Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Studies Commons, Women's History Commons, and the Women's Studies Commons Recommended Citation Paradis, Meghan C. (2016) "Shifting Understandings of Lesbianism in Imperial and Weimar Germany," Scholarly Undergraduate Research Journal at Clark: Vol. 2 , Article 4. Available at: https://commons.clarku.edu/surj/vol2/iss1/4 This Review is brought to you for free and open access by the Scholarly Collections & Academic Work at Clark Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Scholarly Undergraduate Research Journal at Clark by an authorized editor of Clark Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. REVIEW SHIFTING UNDERSTANDINGS OF LESBIANISM IN IMPERIAL AND WEIMAR GERMANY Meghan Paradis ‘17 | History & German Major ABSTRACT Tis paper seeks to understand how, and why, understandings of lesbianism shifed in Germany over the course of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Trough close readings of both popular cultural productions and medical and psychological texts produced within the context of Imperial and Weimar Germany, this paper explores the changing nature of understandings of homosexuality in women. It argues that, over the course of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the dominant conceptualization of lesbianism History transformed from an understanding of lesbians that was rooted in biology and viewed lesbians as physically masculine “gender inverts,” to one that was grounded in psychology, and imagined lesbians as inherently traumatized, mother-fxated, and suicidal. Tis paper suggests that this shif was facilitated by the increasing infuence of psychologists like Sigmund Freud, and greater German preoccupation with trauma and suicide following World War I, and highlights the importance of historical context in shaping self-understanding. As a state that began standings of female homosexu- come to power. Weimar-era writ- anew not once, but twice, in the ality shifed dramatically, with ers began to question some of the early nineteenth and twentieth psychology replacing biology as assumptions of their predecessor century, Germany was in a con- the primary way of understand- and base their understanding of tinuous process of reinventing ing lesbianism. While in the late lesbianism in psychology. Lesbian itself and forming national nineteenth century, a lesbian women were increasingly viewed self-understandings. Tis cul- would explain herself to others as as woman who were mistreated ture of redefnition facilitated a neither fully biologically male nor by their mothers as children and reexamining of values and beliefs female, by the 1920s she would were unable to recover from this previously taken for granted, in- understand herself as a woman, abuse. Emerging over a backdrop cluding the association of homo- but a psychologically incomplete of Weimar concerns about sui- sexuality with moral depravity. or damaged one. cide, this conceptualization of the Within this context, heterosexual My analysis will begin feminine mother-fxated lesbian doctors and scholars, in addition chronologically with thinkers of also became inextricably tied to to gay and lesbian writers, be- Imperial Germany, a period that suicide. came deeply invested in under- begins with Germany’s unifca- Tis paper will frst very standing what it meant to be gay tion and establishment as a state briefy look at understandings of or lesbian. Tis paper will focus in 1871, and ends in 1914 with lesbianism in theory and culture on the more popular academic the start of World War I. In this prior to World War I. It will then and cultural works that dealt spe- period, German sexologists, in discuss the ubiquitous nature cifcally with lesbians, who have addition to prominent lesbian of suicide in Weimar culture received relately scant attention writers and thinkers, understood and the new understanding of compared even with gay men. lesbians primarily as “gender lesbianism within this context by Tese understand- inverts” whose existence could Weimar thinkers. It will conclude ings did not remain static, but be explained primarily through with a discussion of this Weimar rather changed over time and biology or medicine. Te Wei- conceptualization of the lesbian were greatly infuenced by their mar era begins in 1918 with the in major cultural productions, respective historical contexts. In end of World War I and the namely Mädchen in Uniform and particular, over the course of the establishment of a democratic Der Skorpion. Imperial and Weimar eras, both government in Germany, and mainstream and lesbian under- ends in 1933 when the Nazis 26 SHIFTING UNDERSTANDINGS OF LESBIANISM IN IMPERIAL AND WEIMAR GERMANYVICTIMS: Meghan Paradis I. IMPERIAL UNDERSTANDINGS Psychology only comes of the characters when her lover OF LESBIANISM into play when he notes the feel- temporarily leaves her for a man, In his infuential 1886 tome, ings of depression, loneliness, which is, as with Kraf-Ebing’s Psychopathia Sexualis, Richard or dissatisfaction that bring his case studies, a sadness brought von Kraf-Ebing devotes a chapter patients to him. In his work, on society’s condemnation of to lesbianism titled, “Congenital despair or trauma is not a cause homosexuality, not homosexual- Sexual Inversion in Women.” for homosexuality, or inherently ity itself. For Kraf-Ebing, lesbianism, connected to it, but rather the Te next year, Anna or “Uranism In Women,” is an result of a lack of understanding Rühling gave her speech, “What inborn (“congenital”) condition, of homosexuality. For example, Interest Does the Women’s Move- which is caused by biological he writes of Mrs. X, “She sufered ment Have in the Homosexuality factors.i Although he acknowl- from nervousness because she Question?” to the annual meeting edges situations or circumstances could not always realize these of the Scientifc Humanitarian that he believes might induce desires.”iv Tere is only one men- Committee, and echoed much History homosexual behavior in so- tion of an attempt at self-harm the same notions about the called “normal” women, namely that he deems as a “notewor- homosexual woman’s gender in- impotent husbands, prostitution, thy” aspect of his patient’s version.ix In her plea for feminists and being kept from men, he childhood, which he otherwise to take an interest in lesbians like describes these contexts as excep- describes as being of “nothing of herself, Rühling bases much of tions to the rule. According to importance.”v His patient, a “Mrs. her argument on lesbian’s desires Kraf-Ebing, most lesbians are M,” drank poisoned cofee at the being “inborn” and therefore, congenitally homosexual, and age of ten, because she “fancies according to Rühling, inextri- have stereotypically masculine her mother did not love her” cably connected to a masculine features and masculine expres- and hoped to make herself sick presentation.x She argues that “in sion, thus constituting a “third in order to draw her attention.vi people with primarily masculine sex.” As such, he devotes much But Kraf-Ebing moves quickly characteristics, the sex drive is of his analysis to emphasizing forward without dwelling on the naturally directed towards wom- the physical and social gender incident and he does not return en,” and delineates the various nonconformity in homosexual to this incident, or the patient’s “masculine” qualities of lesbians women. mother again. and how these qualities would aid In his case studies, Kraf- Almost twenty years the movement.xi Ebing draws attention to the later, Aimee Duc, a lesbian writer, Te possibility of a women’s feelings of having been has one of her lesbian characters conventionally feminine lesbian homosexual their entire lives and describe herself as a “Kraf- is acknowledged just once, and indicates when they have physi- Ebing type” in her popular 1903 her existence is explained as self- cal characteristics he considers novel, Are Tese Women?, thus deception- she is only pretending masculine, which they almost endorsing Kraf-Ebing’s under- to be feminine to avoid “being always do. For example, he notes standing of the lesbian. vii Her detected” as a homosexual, and at the end of his study of a “Miss characters view themselves as is thus taking part in a “bitter N.” that she has “masculine “humans who are neither men comedy”.xii In their natural states, features, deep voice, manly gait… nor women,” and dream of writ- all lesbians for Rühling have small breasts, cropped her hair ing doctoral dissertations about experienced an “inborn drive to short, and made the impression “the scientifc positive proof of a love” women their entire lives, of a man in women’s clothes.”ii third sex.”viii Some of the women as a result of their “masculine He emphasizes that the “female are described as being very mas- characteristics.”xiii Tere is no homosexual” neglects behaviors culine, and the implication seems mention either of the mother or expected of women, such as playing to be that as educated women childhood trauma. with dolls, appreciating art, and they are inherently