A University of Sussex DPhil thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details The Nigerian Press 1984 – 1999: ‘Magnificent and Heroic’? Cornelius Segun Ojo School of Media, Film and Music University of Sussex Thesis submitted March, 2015 in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2 Acknowledgements Special thanks to: My late parents, Adeniran Amoo and Solape Apinke for their enduring love and care. I am most grateful to my main supervisor, Janice Winship for being so supportive all the way and, my co-supervisor, Kate Lacey for her additional support. I'd also like to thank staff and colleagues in the School of Media, Film and Music; staff and colleagues at the Institute of Development Studies; staff at the University’s main Library; the Students Union and, staff at the Student Progress and Assessment Office for their understanding all the way. To all editors and state officials I interviewed, for their time and valuable insights which helped shape this study. I acknowledge the assistance rendered by the staff of the British Newspaper Library, Collingdale, London; staff at the University of Ibadan Library, Nigerian Tribune Library, Ibadan, The Guardian Library and Champion Library, Lagos respectively. I pay special tributes to all my family and friends too numerous to mention, for their support and concern during this odyssey. May God reward you all. Finally, I acknowledge all intellectuals on whose shoulders I leaned on to carry out this study. This thesis is dedicated to: The God of my heart. 3 Statement I hereby declare that this thesis has not been and will not be, submitted in whole or in part to another University for the award of any other degree. Signature:……………………………………… 4 UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX Cornelius Segun Ojo Doctor of Philosophy The Nigerian Press 1984 – 1999: ‘Magnificent and Heroic’? Summary Against the background of ‘the global resurgence of democracy’ (Diamond and Plattner 1996), and focusing particularly on the democratic waves that swept through Africa in the 90s, scholars have acknowledged the central role of the press in the restoration of democratic governance in Africa. The Nigerian press in particular has been touted as Africa’s symbol of a liberal press (Seng and Hunt 1986, Ogbondah 1994). It is said to have played a significant role in the battle against military dictatorship, leading to Wole Soyinka’s trophy: the press as ‘magnificent and heroic’ (Soyinka 1998). Yet in spite of the ‘adversarial and lively outspokenness’ of the press (Olukotun 2002, 2010), the military had a sixteen-year reign. How can this paradox be explained? The thesis explores four military regimes during the sixteen-year period focusing on specific events of national significance in each regime, with a view to establishing what role/s the press played in restoring democracy; and whether it deserved the award of ‘magnificent and heroic’. Methodologically it adopts a critical discourse analysis approach (Fairclough 2013, Van Dijk 1991), particularly analysing headlines, news reports, editorials, photographs, political cartoons and articles; across seven national newspapers and two weekly magazines. Additionally it draws on interviews with state officials and editors with knowledge of the periods to provide a further interpretation of the press at particular historical moments. It opens up the issue of a liberal press to suggest that there are serious questions about the press’s relation to the various military regimes and thus the degree to which the press really was ‘magnificent and heroic’. Indeed an argument can be made that much of the press was complicit with these regimes and contributed to delaying the realisation of a democratic rule. 5 Contents Chapter One – Learning to Question the Press: A Personal Story 12 Chapter Two - From Protest to Ethno-politics: Accounts of the Nigerian Press 28 Introduction 29 The Anti-colonial Press: Protest and Nationalism 41 Rise of an Ethno-political Press 44 A Press Undermined? 47 The Playing out of Partisanship: Decline of National Interests 50 Complicity with the Military? 51 Conclusion 53 Chapter Three - Research Methodologies 55 Introduction 56 Research Questions 56 In Relation to Existing Studies 57 The Critical Discourse Analysis Approach 58 Newspaper Titles 60 The Field Trip 63 Issues with Experiential Knowledge 65 Notes on Newspaper Titles and Formats 67 Limitation of Study 72 Conclusion 73 Chapter Four - Enforcing Social Responsibility of the Press: Buhari, Decree 4 and the Press (1984 – 1985) 74 Introduction 75 Supporting the Change of Government 76 Decree 4: The Gathering Storm 89 End of the Honeymoon 91 The Test Case: Buhari v press 97 Fourth Estate or Fifth Columnist? The Press Plays Russian Roulette 107 6 Chapter Five - Democracy Delayed! The Press and Cosy Conspiracy in Babangida Years (1985 – 1993 110 Introduction 111 A Timely Intervention 115 Riding Through the Storm, Negotiating Friendship 124 The run-up to June 12 127 June 12: Election Day 136 The Gathering Storm: The Annulment of the Election 138 Conclusion 146 Chapter Six - News as Myth: Politics of Succession in Abacha Years (1993 – 1998) 148 Introduction 149 Interim Government: The Press opted for the military 152 Press Invitation to Abacha: A Turning Point 159 A Familiar Story: The Press Withdraws Support for Abacha 168 Abacha: The President in Waiting 171 Abacha: The Cul-de-sac 182 Conclusion 184 Chapter Seven - Willingness to disengage: The Abdusalami Abubakar Transition (1998 – 1999) 187 Introduction 188 Hands of Fellowship 190 Having its way: The Military Triumphs 197 The Press Supports the Transition 203 Obasanjo: The Press Rallies Round him 209 Cocnclusion: The Press Accepts Defeat 212 7 Chapter Eight – Conclusion 214 Neither Magnificent nor Heroic: Nigeria’s Complicit Press (1984 – 1999) Bibliography 223 Newspapers and Magazines 238 Appendix 1 – List of major newspapers in Nigeria between 1960 – 1999; Ownership and Structure 239 Appendix 2 - Notable dates and personalities in history 242 8 List of Abbreviations ABN – Association for Better Nigeria AD – Alliance for Democracy ADC - Association of Defence Correspondents AFP - Agency France Press AG – Action Group AIT - Africa Independent Television CBN - Central Bank of Nigeria CBS – Columbia Broadcasting System CDS – Centre for Democratic Studies CIA – Central Intelligence Agency CIMA – Centre for International Media Assistance CNC - Congress of National Consensus CNN – Cable News Network DPN - Democratic Party of Nigeria EC – European Commission EU – European Union FRSC – Federal Road Safety Commission GDM - Grassroots Democratic Party GNPP – Great Nigeria’s Peoples’ Party IBB – Ibrahim Badamosi Babangida IMF – International Monetary Fund 9 INEC – Independent National Electoral Commission ING – Interim National Government MKO – Moshood Kashimawo Olawale NAP – National Advance Party NCNC – National Council of Nigerians and the Cameroons NCPN - National Centre Party of Nigeria NEC - National Electoral Commission NECON – National Electoral Commission of Nigeria NLC - Nigeria Labour Congress NNPC -Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation NPN – National Party of Nigeria NRC – National Republican Convention NUJ – Nigeria Union of Journalists PDP – Peoples Democratic Party PRP – Peoples Redemption Party SAP – Structural Adjustment Programme SDP – Social Democratic Party SMC – Supreme Military Council UAC – United Africa Company UK – United Kingdom UNCP - United Nigeria Centre Party UPN – Unity Party of Nigeria US – United States 10 List of illustrations Figure 1: Cartoon from National Concord 79 Figure 2: Cartoon from The Guardian 83 Figure 3: Cartoon from The Guardian 95 Figure 4: Photograph from The Guardian 100 Figure 5: Photograph from National Concord 102 Figure 6: Photograph from The Guardian 104 Figure 7: Photograph from The Guardian 105 Figure 8: Photograph from National Concord 106 Figure 9: Photograph from The Punch 118 Figure 10: Cartoon from The Punch 120 Figure11: Cartoon from Nigerian Tribune 123 Figure 12: Front page news from The Punch 129 Figure 13: Advert from The Punch 130 Figure I4: Front page news from The Punch, 132 Figure 15: Cartoon from The Punch, 141 Figure 16: Cartoon from Nigerian Tribune 142 Figure 17: Cartoon from Vanguard 158 Figure 18: Photograph from Vanguard 163 Figure 19: Photograph from Daily Champion 164 Figure 20: Front page news from Daily Champion 166 Figure 21: Cartoon from Vanguard 174 11 Figure 22: Cartoon from Daily Champion 176 Figure 23: Full page Photograph from Thisday 199 Figure 24: Photograph from Nigerian Tribune 200 Figure 25: Front page news from Nigerian Tribune 203 Figure 26: Photograph from Nigerian Tribune 205 Figure 27: Front page news from Thisday 206 Figure 28: Photograph from Thisday 207 Figure 29: Front page news from Nigerian Tribune 210 Figure 30: Front page news from Thisday 211 12 Chapter 1 Introduction: Learning to Question the Press: A Personal Story For all intents and purposes, the New York Times