THE SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECTS OF NATURAL RESOURCE USE AND MANAGEMENT BY LOCAL COMMUNITIES IN THE SALONGA- LUKENIE-SANKURU LANDSCAPE: GUIDELINES FOR CONSERVATION AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT WWF-Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) September 2006 1 Prepared by: Alejandra Colom With contributions by: Billy Kambala Luadia Isabelle Edumbadumba Alain Nsuku Angele Mowa Kapundu Yolande Muzima Bruno Ntumba Nzoto Lisa Steel 1Cultural Anthropologist, Consultant to WWF-DRC THE SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECTS OF NATURAL RESOURCE USE AND MANAGEMENT BY LOCAL COMMUNITIES IN THE SALONGA- LUKENIE-SANKURU LANDSCAPE: A GUIDELINE FOR CONSERVATION AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT WWF-Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) September 2006 Prepared by: Alejandra Colom With contributions by: Billy Kambala Luadia Isabelle Edumbadumba Alain Nsuku Angele Mowa Kapundu Yolande Muzima Bruno Ntumba Nzoto Lisa Steel Citation: Colom, Alejandra. 2006. The Socioeconomic Aspects of Natural Resource Use and Management by Local Communities in the Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape: Guidelines for Conservation and Livelihood Improvement. Unpublished report prepared for WWF-Democratic Republic of Congo. This work was made possible thanks to the support of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) through its Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE) according to the terms of the Congo Basin Forest Partnership (CBFP) Agreement n°623-A-00-03-00064-00 as well as with the financial support of the European Union (EU) in the context of the programme « Renforcement des capacités de gestion de l’ICCN et appui a la réhabilitation d’aires protégées en RDC » (UE-9 ACP ZR 4/1). The opinions expressed in this document are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID, the EU, or WWF. Acknowledgements and Contributions This work would not have been possible without a tremendous contribution from Lisa Steel, Landscape Leader/Principal Technical Advisor for Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape, WWF. I am very indebted to Lisa for her invaluable assistance both in the field and as editor and proof- reader of this document. She offered many important comments, provided input, as well as shared her field notes which were very helpful in finalizing this report. I am grateful to her for granting me with facilities to work at the various WWF offices in the field as well in Kinshasa. This study represents the efforts of a large team of field researchers and logistical and support staff. The different groups and individuals are as follows: Field Leaders and Data Entry 1. Billy Kambala Luadia 2. Isabelle Edumbadumba 3. Alain Nsuku 4. Angele Mowa Kapundu 5. Yolande Muzima 6. Bruno Ntumba Nzoto Local Field Researchers and Logistical Support 1. Baoudouin Kankosa 2. Tinda Hamza Mayazola 3. Judith Mundeka Makila 4. Richard Ngalula 5. Alexandre Onema 6. Jean Felicien Bobo Ibono 7. Michel Imana 8. Emery Elonda Basele 9. Emeli Bokwalolo 10. Bengungu Georgette 11. Baondjo Ikonga 12. Anselme Bendji Data Entry 1. Martin Bemba 2. Jack Etsa In addition, the different WWF offices (Kinshasa, Mbandaka, and Monkoto) provided important support and we thank all who contributed to making this logistically challenging study a success. Lastly, the teams were greeted with a remarkable amount of hospitality and openness by all participating villages, local authorities, households and other collaborators. These villages and individuals merit our greatest thanks. List of Contents Summary ………………………………………………………………................................. 1 Major Findings ...……………………………………………………………………………... 4 I. Introduction……………….…………………………………………..…………………… 13 II. Methodology...……………………………………………………………………………. 15 A. Definitions ……….……….…………………………………………………………… 16 B. Selection of villages and participants …………………………………………... 17 C. Logistical and methodological challenges …………………………………….. 18 D. Data entry and analysis activities .……………………………………………….. 19 III. Findings .................................................................................................................. 20 Oshwe Territory: Lokolama and Nkaw Sectors A. Cultural and historical context …………………………………………………… 22 B. Present day context: General demographics and social organization …… 28 C. General information on household and village level subsistence and economic activities ………………………………………………………………….. 30 1. Income generation and time allocation ……………….………………………... 31 2. Household expenses ……………………………………...……………………… 33 D. Principal subsistence and economic activities ……………………………….. 37 1. Agriculture ……………………………………………………………………….. 37 Agricultural trade ……………………………………………………………..…... 39 Changes and adaptation in agriculture ……………………………………….... 40 2. Collection of NTFPs……………………………………………………………... 42 Revenue from NTFPs ………………………………………………………….… 45 Locally Perceived changes in the collection of NTFPs …………………......... 46 3. Fishing …………………………………………………………………………….. 47 Fish preferences ……………………………………………………………..…… 50 Revenue from fishing …………………………………………………………….. 52 Consumption of fish ………………………………………………………………. 55 Locally perceived changes in fishing activities ………………………………… 56 4. Hunting ……………………………………………………………………………. 61 Revenue from hunting ………………………………..………………………….. 66 Consumption of bushmeat ………………………………………………………. 69 Locally perceived changes in the practice of hunting ………………………… 72 5. Commerce ………………………………………………………………………… 77 Barriers to the practice of commerce ………………………………….……….. 78 E. Access to land and resources …………………………………………………….. 80 Boende and Bokungu Territories: Salonga and Lomela Rivers A. Cultural and historical context …………………………………………………… 84 B. Present day context: General demographics and social organization …… 86 C. General information on household and village level subsistence and economic activities ………………………………………………………………….. 87 1. Income generation and time allocation ……………….………………………... 88 2. Household expenses ……………………………………...……………………… 89 D. Principal subsistence and economic activities ……………………………….. 92 1. Agriculture ……………………………………………………………………….. 92 Changes and adaptation in agriculture ……………………………………….... 94 2. Collection of NTFPs……………………………………………………………... 97 Locally Perceived changes in the collection of NTFPs …………………......... 99 3. Fishing …………………………………………………………………………….. 100 Fish preferences ……………………………………………………………..…… 103 Revenue from fishing …………………………………………………………….. 104 Consumption of fish ………………………………………………………………. 106 Locally perceived changes in fishing activities ………………………………… 107 4. Hunting ……………………………………………………………………………. 110 Revenue from hunting ………………………………..………………………….. 115 Consumption of bushmeat ………………………………………………………. 118 Locally perceived changes in the practice of hunting ………………………… 120 E. Access to land and resources …………………………………………………….. 125 Seasonal versus year-round access …………………………………………… 128 Monkoto Territory A. Cultural and historical context …………………………………………………… 131 B. Present day context: General demographics and social organization …… 133 C. General information on household and village level subsistence and economic activities ………………………………………………………………….. 134 3. Income generation and time allocation ……………….………………………... 135 4. Household expenses ……………………………………...……………………… 136 D. Principal subsistence and economic activities ……………………………….. 139 1. Agriculture ……………………………………………………………………….. 139 Changes and adaptation in agriculture ……………………………………….... 140 2. Collection of NTFPs……………………………………………………………... 142 Locally Perceived changes in the collection of NTFPs …………………......... 143 3. Fishing …………………………………………………………………………….. 144 Fish preferences ……………………………………………………………..…… 146 Revenue from fishing …………………………………………………………….. 146 Consumption of fish ………………………………………………………………. 147 Locally perceived changes in fishing activities ………………………………… 148 4. Hunting ……………………………………………………………………………. 151 Revenue from hunting ………………………………..………………………….. 153 Consumption of bushmeat ………………………………………………………. 155 Locally perceived changes in the practice of hunting ………………………… 157 E. Access to land and resources …………………………………………………….. 159 Dekese Territory A. Cultural and historical context …………………………………………………… 164 B. Present day context: General demographics and social organization …… 166 C. General information on household and village level subsistence and economic activities ………………………………………………………………….. 167 1. Income generation and time allocation ……………….………………………... 168 2. Household expenses ……………………………………...……………………… 170 D. Principal subsistence and economic activities ……………………………….. 172 1. Agriculture ……………………………………………………………………….. 172 Changes and adaptation in agriculture ……………………………………….... 174 2. Collection of NTFPs……………………………………………………………... 176 Revenue from NTFPs ………………………………………………………….… 177 Locally perceived changes in the collection of NTFPs …………………......... 178 3. Fishing …………………………………………………………………………….. 180 Fish preferences ……………………………………………………………..…… 182 Revenue from fishing …………………………………………………………….. 183 Consumption of fish ………………………………………………………………. 184 Locally perceived changes in fishing activities ………………………………… 186 4. Hunting ……………………………………………………………………………. 188 Revenue from hunting ………………………………..………………………….. 191 Consumption of bushmeat ………………………………………………………. 193 Locally perceived changes in the practice of hunting ………………………… 196 5. Commerce ………………………………………………………………………… 199 Changes and barriers to the practice of commerce ………………….……….. 200 E. Access to land and resources …………………………………………………….. 201 IV. Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………….. 204 A. Landscape-level trends: isolation, adaptation and