SOUTH AUSTRALIAN QUAKERS AND UNITARIANS: A COMPARATIVE STUDY IN MODERNITY by Jenny Norris-Green (BA Hons) Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Deakin University March 2018 Page i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It would have been impossible to finish my thesis without the guidance of my supervisors, and support from my family, friends, fellow students and the staff of Deakin University. I would like to express heart-felt gratitude to my principal supervisor, A/Prof Rohan Bastin, who patiently supported me and guided me throughout my research. Special thanks goes to my second supervisor, Dr Tanya King, who provided advice and encouragement; particularly in the early days of my research when I was totally lost. I would also like to thank my partner, family and friends for their timely wisdom and unwavering support through what must have seemed like an interminable process. Special thanks must also go to the members of the South Australian Quaker and Unitarian communities who have always supported me, shown considerable interest, offered assistance and encouraged me with their best wishes. Page ii TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures and Tables……………………………………………………………………………………………………….................vi Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……….vii Introduction .........................................................................................................…...1 1. Introduction 2. Background to the Study. 2.1 Choice of Location 2.2 Choice of Research Groups 3. Objective and Scope of Study 4. Rationale and Significance 5. Research Questions 5.1 The main research question 5.2 Subsidiary questions 6. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework 7. Review of Literature 8. The Concept of Modernity 8.1 Overview 8.2 Holism and Individualism/Non-Modern and Modern 8.3 The Christian Roots of Modern Individualism 8.4 Variants in Modern Ideology 9. Methodology 9.1 Fieldwork 9.2 Interviews 9.3 Other Resources 10. Insider/Outsider Research 11. Unintended Consequences of Comparative Fieldwork 12. Definitions 13. Structure of Thesis Chapter 1: The Colony of South Australia, Quakers and Unitarians: An Historical Perspective………………………………………………………………………………………………………………48 1. Introduction 2. Historical Background – Quakerism 3. Historical Background - Unitarianism 4. The Colony of South Australia 5. Unitarian Settlers 5.1 The Adelaide community 5.2 Adelaide Hills Unitarians 5.3 Sesquicentenary Celebrations for Shady Grove 6. Quaker Settlers 6.1 Adelaide and Hills community 6.2 Eastern Suburbs Meeting 40th year celebration and reminiscences 7. Responses to World War One, Military Training and Conscription 8. Conclusion Page iii Chapter 2: Research Setting and Design…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….88 1. Introduction 2. The character of Australian Religion and Spirituality 3. Types of Religious Organisation 3.1 Australian Quakers 3.1.1 Australian Quaker Organizational Structure 3.2 Australian Unitarians 3.2.1 Australian Unitarian Organizational Structure 4. Profile of the Quaker and Unitarian communities 5. Anthropological Analysis of Communities of Practice 5.1 Luhrmann’s Approach 5.2 Csordas’s Approach 5.3 Engelke’s Approach 5.4 Collins’s Approach 6. Conclusion Chapter 3: Quaker Worship Practices. ................................................................... 122 1. Introduction 2. Meetings for Worship 2.1 Friends Meeting House 2.2 Other Meetings 3. Meetings for Worship for Business 4. Marriage and Committed Relationships 4.1 Historical Background 4.2 A Contemporary Quaker Wedding 5. Practices on the Death of a Member 5.1 The Funeral 5.2 The Memorial Meeting 5.3 Internment of Ashes at the Quaker Cemetery 5.4 Life Testimonies 6. Conclusion Page iv Chapter 4: Unitarian Ritual………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………153 1. Introduction 2. Services of Worship 2.1 The Adelaide Unitarian Church 2.1.1 Sunday Morning Service at the Unitarian Meeting House 2.1.2 Flower Communion 2.1.3 Water Communion/Ingathering Service 2.1.4 AGM Sunday 2.1.5 All Heretics Day 2.1.6 Mid-Winter Solstice Service 2.2 Shady Grove Chapel 2.2.1 Vesper Services 2.2.2 Joint Services 3. Rites of Passage 3.1 The Wedding 3.2 Welcoming New Members 3.3 Welcome Service for new Pastor 3.4 Baby Naming Ceremony 3.5 Practices on Death of Member 3.5.1Funeral Services 3.5.2 Memorial Services 3.5.3 Unmarked Graves Ritual 4. Conclusion Chapter 5: Ritual Theory and Analysis………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..188 1. Introduction 2. Ritual as a form of Communicative Action 2.1 Rappaport’s Approach 2.2 Unitarian Practice 2.3 Quaker Practice 3. Ritual as a Strategic Device 3.1 Bell’s Approach 3.2 Quaker Practice 3.3 Unitarian Practice Page v 4. Ritual as a Dynamic Process 4.1 Handelman’s Approach 4.2 Kapferer’s Approach 4.3 Quaker Practice 4.4 Unitarian Practice 5. Practising Modern Ideology 5.1 Quaker Ideas and Practice 5.2 Unitarian Ideas and Practice 6. South Australian Quakers and Unitarians: Variants on a Modern Theme 7. Conclusion Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………236 1. Introduction 2. Research Questions 2.1 The main research question 2.2 Subsidiary questions 3. Thesis Review 3.1The colony of South Australia 3.2 Quaker and Unitarian settlers 3.3 Research setting and design 3.4 Description of Quaker Practices 3.5 Description of Unitarian Practices 4. Research Findings 5. Future Directions for Research 6. The Significance of the Research Appendices……………………………………………………………………………………………………………253 A. 1. Rajah Quilt 2. Quaker Shop 3. Quaker Meeting House B. 1. Unitarian Church, Wakefield St., Adelaide. 2. Unitarian Meeting House, Norwood. 3. John Dowie Painting in Meeting House 4. Shady Grove Chapel Congregational Addresses……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………259 References…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………260 Page vi LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES Figure 1.1 Catherine Helen Spence …………………………………………… Figure 1.2 May family panel for the Quaker Tapestry Project….................... Figure 1.3 WW1 Government Poster………………………………………….. Table 2.1 Australian Religious Affiliation…………………………………… Table 2.2 Quaker Worshipping Groups within Regional Meetings………... Table 2.3 Unitarian Universalist Communities in Australia…….................. Table 2.4 Comparison of Population of States and Territories…………….. Table 2.5 Older Persons, Proportion of Population………………................ Table 2.6 Comparison of Congregants - A…………………………………... Table 2.7 Comparison of Congregants - B…………………………………... Figure 6.1 Australian Values Statement………………………………………. Figure 6.2 Image from Quaker Oats Website………………………………... Figure 6.3 Quaker Media Release …………….................................................. Figure 6.4 Panel from the Quaker Exhibition ………………………………. Figure 6.5 Panel from the Quaker Exhibition……………………………….. Figure 6.6 Australian Government Exhibition ………………………………. Appendix A Figure A.1 The Rajah Quilt…………………………………………………….. Figure A.2 The Quaker Shop…………………………………………………… Figure A.3 The Quaker Meeting House………………………………………... Appendix B Figure B.1 The Original Unitarian Church……………………………………. Figure B.2 The Unitarian Meeting House……………………………………... Figure B.3 John Dowie Painting………………………………………………... Figure B.4 Shady Grove Chapel………………………………………………... Figure B.5 Adelaide Unitarians and Marriage Equality……………………… Page vii ABSTRACT This thesis provided a framework for a comparative enquiry into the cultural life worlds of South Australian Quakers and Unitarians. The stated broad objective of the research was to determine how Quakers and Unitarians negotiated their religious lives within a South Australian context. In doing so, it asked whether the values espoused by these two communities resonated with those embraced by Australia as a modern, secular State. The research, therefore, had three focuses: the location of South Australia, the practices of Quakers and Unitarians, and the values of modernity. The colonial settlement of South Australia was heralded as a new convict-free experiment which promised a supposedly morally superior environment, freedom of worship and religious equality. Importantly, it was promoted as being sympathetic to dissenters—a factor which attracted several British Unitarian and Quaker settler families to its shores. Quaker and Unitarian worshipping practices are demonstrably different in form and content: particularly in their respective use of sound. Whereas Quakers are comfortable with the sound of silence, Unitarians are much more comfortable with an abundant use of words, in addition to the use of sound in music and song. These rituals, however, must be understood mainly in terms of their transformative potential—an attribute which is made possible by the internal dynamics within the rituals themselves. Through their rituals and other practices, adherents are encouraged to pursue personal and societal transformation. In both communities, the individual is given high value; a notion which is commonly associated with, and characteristic of, modernity. This insight led to consideration of the values espoused by Quakers and Unitarians and those characteristic of modern secular Australian society. Quaker and Unitarian individualisms, in effect, could be considered variants within modern ideology—one resulting from a faith based more on Luther’s notions of spiritual equality and liberty, and the other based more on socio-political notions emanating from the Enlightenment and the French Revolution. In a similar way, South Australia, with its colonial beginnings firmly situating it as a utopian experiment in