DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY, CLASSICS & EGYPTOLOGY An Anthropological Assessment of Neanderthal Behavioural Energetics. Thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements of the University of Liverpool for the Degree of Doctor in Philosophy by Andrew Shuttleworth. April, 2013. TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………………………..i LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………………v LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………………..vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS…………………………………………………………………...vii ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………viii TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................1 1.1. Introduction..............................................................................................................1 1.2. Aims and Objectives................................................................................................2 1.3. Thesis Format...........................................................................................................3 2. THE NEANDERTHAL AND OXYEGN ISOTOPE STAGE-3.................................6 2.1. Discovery, Geographic Range & Origins..............................................................7 2.1.1. Discovery........................................................................................................7 2.1.2. Neanderthal Chronology................................................................................10 2.2. Morphology.............................................................................................................11 2.2.1. Cranial Morphology........................................................................................13 2.2.2. Post-Cranial Morphology................................................................................15 2.2.3. Implications of Neanderthal Anatomy & Morphology..................................16 2.3. Archaeology and Material Culture........................................................................19 2.3.1. The Mousterian...............................................................................................20 2.3.2. Neanderthal Symbolic Expression..................................................................24 2.3.3. Neanderthal Life-ways....................................................................................27 2.4. Oxygen Isotope Stage-3 (OIS-3)..............................................................................29 2.4.1. Environmental Conditions in the Last Interglacial.........................................32 2.5. Current Debates Concerning the Neanderthals....................................................34 2.5.1. Neanderthal Extinction....................................................................................34 2.5.2. Behavioural Modernity....................................................................................37 2.6. Summary...................................................................................................................39 3. AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGAL APPROACH......................41 3.1. Introduction...............................................................................................................41 3.2. Ethnographic Based Behavioural Modelling..........................................................42 3.2.1. Ethnographic Datasets......................................................................................45 3.2.2. Current Applications........................................................................................47 3.2.3. Outline of the Behavioural Model....................................................................52 3.3. Ethnographic Sources and Statistical Analysis......................................................53 3.3.1. Hunter-Gatherer Acquisition Criteria..............................................................53 3.3.2. Hunter-Gatherer Selection...............................................................................58 3.3.3. Demographic Variables...................................................................................61 3.3.4. Environmental Variables.................................................................................62 i 3.3.5. Behavioural Variables....................................................................................68 3.3.6. Assigning Importance to Behaviour..............................................................69 3.3.7. Statistical Methodology.................................................................................70 3.3.8. Behavioural Themes......................................................................................71 3.3.9. Principal Component Analysis (PCA)...........................................................72 3.3.10. Correlation.....................................................................................................75 3.3.11. Stepwise Linear Regression...........................................................................75 3.4. Results......................................................................................................................77 3.4.1. Food Resource Acquisition............................................................................77 3.4.2. Tool Complexity............................................................................................81 3.4.3. Non-Material Social Expressions...................................................................83 3.4.4. Spiritual Expression........................................................................................86 3.4.5. Material Symbolic Expression........................................................................88 3.4.6. Phylogenetic Considerations...........................................................................92 3.5. Discussion..................................................................................................................95 3.6. Summary..................................................................................................................99 4. APPLYING THE MODEL TO THE UPPER PALAEOLITHIC.............................100 4.1. Introduction.............................................................................................................100 4.2. Statistical Analysis..................................................................................................102 4.2.1. Adaptations to the Anthropological Methodology.........................................102 4.2.2. Upper Palaeolithic Statistical Analysis..........................................................105 4.2.3. Archaeological Considerations......................................................................107 4.3. The Gravettian........................................................................................................110 4.3.1. Chronology and Geographic Ranges.............................................................111 4.3.2. Archaeological Record – Site Selection Criteria...........................................111 4.3.3. Environment and Climate during the Gravettian...........................................116 4.3.4. Sites................................................................................................................121 4.3.5. Behavioural Predictions.................................................................................123 4.4. Results......................................................................................................................128 4.4.1. Food Resource Acquisition............................................................................128 4.4.2. Tool Technology and Materials.....................................................................129 4.4.3. Social Cohesion..............................................................................................130 4.4.4. Social Control.................................................................................................132 4.4.5. Spiritual Expression.......................................................................................134 4.4.6. Symbolic Material Artefacts..........................................................................136 4.5. Discussion.................................................................................................................137 4.6. Summary..................................................................................................................143 5. APPLYING THE MODEL TO THE EARLY UPPER PALAEOLITHIC..............145 5.1. Introduction.............................................................................................................145 5.2. The Aurignacian......................................................................................................146 5.2.1. Defining the Aurignacian...............................................................................150 5.2.2. Behavioural Definitions of the Aurignacian..................................................152 ii 5.2.3. Chronology and Geographic Ranges............................................................155 5.2.4. Environment and Climate during the Aurignacian.......................................158 5.2.5. Methodology.................................................................................................164 5.2.6. Aurignacian: Pioneer and Developed Sites...................................................165 5.2.7. Sites...............................................................................................................166