R Khan, Rabia Latif (2020) On marginality and overcoming: Narrative, memory and identity among British Hazaras. PhD thesis. SOAS University of London. https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/35277/ Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this thesis, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", name of the School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination. On marginality and overcoming: Narrative, memory and identity among British Hazaras. Rabia Latif Khan Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD 2020 South Asia Section, School of Languages, Cultures & Linguistics SOAS, University of London 1 Abstract: The purpose of this research has been to examine narrative and identity among the Hazara community in England and Hazara transnational connections. Within this thesis I study two Hazara-specific narratives: one on ‘marginality’ and the other about ‘overcoming’ and how these narratives interact with Hazara conceptualisations of identity. These narratives both relate to Hazara history, in that the narrative of marginality relates to the subjugation of the community since the insurrection of Hazarajat and subsequent instances of discrimination and injustice, while the narrative of overcoming stems from the post-2001 gains of the community in Afghanistan. By engaging with these two very distinct community narratives this research allows for an exploration of individual self-identification, community articulations of what it means to ‘be Hazara’ and how the community chooses to present itself to the outside world. This is alongside showcasing an indigenous historiography of the community within the thesis, which is being documented by Hazaras online. Accordingly, this thesis begins with an introduction chapter which explains the rationale behind the research as well as contextualising the narratives of marginality and overcoming and their relevance to this research. This is followed by a literature review and a background chapter which details Afghan migration to Europe since the late 1970s, with a focus on Hazara migration to Britain, after which there are several findings chapters and a conclusion chapter. The findings chapters explore the contents of these narratives, how the community relates to them and the events which shape this historiography project, with various modes of communication and spaces forming the basis of these findings chapters. Therefore within this thesis these modes of communication and spaces can be understood as the following: oral history, religion, social media and community events. In turn this research contributes to the study of Hazaras in Europe, Hazara historiography and Hazara collective consciousness in the 21st Century. 3 Acknowledgements: As this research comes to an end I must take time to thank those who have supported me over the years while I have been conducting this PhD project. Dr James Caron has tirelessly worked to oversee this project and provide support when I was lacking confidence and direction. His supervision and guidance over the years have helped make this project a reality. My family, especially my mum Farzana, have given me immense encouragement throughout the course of this research, for which I am extremely grateful. Alongside my immediate family I cannot forget my SOAS family. Jin Han Jeong, Sarah Liu, Anaïs Da Fonseca, Ini Dele-Adedeji and Florence Shahabi were always there to listen and give advice. I would also like to thank my aunt Farzana for all her help and support during my field research year and stay in Birmingham. My deepest gratitude also goes to the fifty research participants, who shared stories about their youth, migration and lived experiences, for being so open with me and taking time of out their busy schedules to assist with the research. I am also deeply indebted to Hazara friends and acquaintances who suggested potential research participants and research sites, especially Rahila Muhibi, Kazem Sharan and Esmat Amean, as well as members of the community who provided me with valuable academic resources throughout the course of the PhD. This research was very much a collaborative effort and I am extremely grateful to have had the opportunity to work with members of the Hazara community in England. 4 Table of Contents: Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................ 7 1.1 Research rationale and context .............................................................................. 8 1.2 Research methodology ......................................................................................... 12 1.3 Master narratives .................................................................................................. 20 1.4 Individualised narratives ....................................................................................... 26 1.5 On marginality and overcoming ............................................................................ 30 1.6 Subsequent chapters............................................................................................. 36 Chapter 2: Literature review ............................................................................... 40 2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 40 2.2 Ethnicity, identity and diasporas ........................................................................... 41 2.3 On ‘imagined communities’………………………………………………………………………………51 2.4 Hazara social networks ......................................................................................... 55 2.5 Collective memory ................................................................................................ 58 2.6 Narrative and history ............................................................................................ 63 2.7 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 68 Chapter 3: The political backdrop of Afghanistan from the 1960s onwards and Hazara migration to Europe ................................................................................ 70 3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 70 3.2 Governance in Afghanistan from the 1960s to the 1980s .................................... 70 3.3 From the Mujahedeen to the Taliban ................................................................... 71 3.4 NATO in Afghanistan and the 2001 Bonn Conference .......................................... 72 3.5 Hazaras in Afghanistan .......................................................................................... 74 3.6 Hazaras in Pakistan ............................................................................................... 82 3.7 Hazaras in Iran ....................................................................................................... 84 3.8 Hazara migration to Britain ................................................................................... 86 3.9 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 99 Chapter 4: An oral history of Hazara consciousness ............................................ 101 4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 101 4.2 History and memory ........................................................................................... 103 4.3 Hazara historiography ......................................................................................... 106 4.4 Marginality and overcoming over time............................................................... 111 4.5 On experience, memory and narrative ............................................................... 116 4.6 Abdul Ali Mazari and Hazara consciousness ....................................................... 120 4.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 129 5 Chapter 5: A genealogy of religion and secularism among transnational Hazaras ............................................................................................................. 132 5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 132 5.2 On the Shia orientation of Hazaras and its implications ..................................... 133 5.3 Explicit discourses on religion ............................................................................. 141 5.4 A genealogy of Hazara political theology before and during the Soviet war ..... 149 5.5 Genealogies of secularism in contemporary Hazara life .................................... 160 5.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 166 Chapter 6: Social