A Review of the Marine Soft-Sediment Assemblages of New Zealand New Zealand Aquatic Environment and Biodiversity Report No 96 A.A. Rowden K. Berkenbusch P.E. Brewin J. Dalen K.F. Neill W.A. Nelson M.D. Oliver P.K. Probert A.-M. Schwarz P.H. Sui D. Sutherland ISSN 1179-6480 (online) ISBN 978-0-478-38878-7 (online) June 2012 Requests for further copies should be directed to: Publications Logistics Officer Ministry for Primary Industries PO Box 2526 WELLINGTON 6140 Email: [email protected] Telephone: 0800 00 83 33 Facsimile: 04-894 0300 This publication is also available on the Ministry for Primary Industries websites at: http://www.mpi.govt.nz/news-resources/publications.aspx http://fs.fish.govt.nz go to Document library/Research reports © Crown Copyright - Ministry for Primary Industries TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 2 1.1 Overview ..................................................................................................................... 2 1.2 Objectives ................................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Definitions and approach ........................................................................................... 3 1.4 References ................................................................................................................. 4 2. INFORMATION DATABASE ................................................................................... 7 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 7 2.2 Methods ...................................................................................................................... 8 2.2.1 Database description and design .................................................................... 8 2.2.2 Literature search ............................................................................................ 10 2.2.3 Entering the data and searching the database .............................................. 10 2.3 Results.................................................................................................................... 13 2.3.1 Database records .......................................................................................... 13 2.3.2 Literature records ........................................................................................... 14 2.3.3 Geographic spread of records ....................................................................... 14 2.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................ 15 2.5 Recommendations ................................................................................................... 17 2.6 Acknowledgments .................................................................................................... 17 2.7 References ............................................................................................................... 17 3. SEAGRASSES AND MANGROVES ..................................................................... 28 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 28 3.1.1 Scope ............................................................................................................... 28 3.2 Review of scientific literature ................................................................................... 29 3.2.1 Seagrasses.................................................................................................... 29 3.2.2 Mangroves ..................................................................................................... 30 3.3 Current state of seagrass knowledge ...................................................................... 30 3.3.1 Taxonomy ...................................................................................................... 30 3.3.2 Distribution and extent ................................................................................... 30 3.3.3 Growth requirements ..................................................................................... 31 3.3.4 Role in the ecosystem ................................................................................... 32 3.3.5 Threats and vulnerability ................................................................................ 33 3.4 Current state of mangrove knowledge ..................................................................... 33 3.4.1 Taxonomy ...................................................................................................... 33 3.4.2 Distribution and extent ................................................................................... 33 3.4.3 Growth requirements ..................................................................................... 34 3.5 Biodiversity ‘hotspots’ ............................................................................................... 36 3.6 Gaps in knowledge ................................................................................................... 36 3.7 Recommendations for future research .................................................................... 38 3.8 References ............................................................................................................... 38 4. MACROALGAE ..................................................................................................... 50 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 50 4.1.1. Scope ............................................................................................................. 51 4.2 Current state of knowledge ...................................................................................... 51 4.2.1. Taxonomy ...................................................................................................... 51 4.2.2. Distribution and extent ................................................................................... 51 4.4 Role in the ecosystem .............................................................................................. 59 4.5 Threats and vulnerability .......................................................................................... 60 4.6 Hotspots and gaps in knowledge ............................................................................. 60 4.6.1. Taxonomy ...................................................................................................... 60 4.6.2. Distribution: geographic and environmental .................................................. 61 4.6.3. Role in ecosystem ......................................................................................... 61 4.6.4. Diversity ......................................................................................................... 61 4.7 Recommendations for future research .................................................................... 62 4.8 References ............................................................................................................... 62 5. INTERTIDAL MACROINVERTEBRATES ............................................................. 72 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 72 5.2 Current state of knowledge ...................................................................................... 73 5.2.1 Assemblage diversity and distribution ........................................................... 73 5.2.1.1 Sheltered bays and inlets ........................................................................ 74 5.2.1.1.1 An early New Zealand-wide study .......................................................... 74 5.2.1.1.2 Manukau Harbour, North Island ........................................................... 75 5.2.1.1.3 Auckland region, North Island .............................................................. 78 5.2.1.1.4 Other North Island locations ................................................................ 79 5.2.1.1.5 South Island ......................................................................................... 81 5.2.1.1.6 Assemblages of vegetated habitats ..................................................... 83 5.2.1.1.7 Recent across-location studies ............................................................ 85 5.2.1.2 Exposed beaches .................................................................................... 87 5.2.2 Structural and functional diversity .................................................................. 89 5.3 Taxonomy and biogeography .................................................................................. 92 5.4 Threats and vulnerability .......................................................................................... 92 5.4.1 Contaminants ................................................................................................. 93 5.4.3 Sedimentation................................................................................................ 96 5.4.4 Freshwater input ............................................................................................ 97 5.4.5 Introduced species......................................................................................... 97 5.4.6