FRONTIERS OF IDENTITY: TRANSNATIONAL DISPLACEMENT, CLANDESTINITY AND CONFLICT IN THE ECUADORIAN-COLOMBIAN BORDERLANDS AND INNER CITIES IN ECUADOR by Ruth Adriana Salcedo A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of George Mason University in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Conflict Analysis and Resolution Committee: Chair of Committee Graduate Program Director Dean, School for Conflict Analysis and Resolution Date: Spring Semester 2014 George Mason University Fairfax, VA Frontiers of Identity: Transnational Displacement, Clandestinity and Conflict in the Ecuadorian-Colombian Borderlands and Inner Cities in Ecuador A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at George Mason University by Ruth Adriana Salcedo Master of International Relations Simón Bolívar Andean University, 2005 Bachelor of Anthropology Pontifical Catholic University of Ecuador, 1998 Director: Mark Goodale, Associate Professor of Conflict Analysis and Professor of Anthropology Spring Semester 2014 George Mason University Fairfax, VA This work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-noderivs 3.0 unported license . ii DEDICATION To refugees around the world, whose journeys of courage and resistance stand as examples of hope and resilience for the whole of humanity. May this research serve, even in small measure, to pave your way towards achieving justice, reconciliation and peace in your lives and communities. I hope I have done justice to your voices And To my incredible family, who stand by my side in every moment of my life. To my loving husband Mac, for his care, patience, solidarity and love throughout the years and to my lovely daughter Nina Rafaella, who was born almost at the same time that this research began. Without your help my angel, I would probably have finished this dissertation two years ago… yet the path would not have been as enjoyable as it was! iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research was an intriguing and sometimes challenging journey. It was made possible only with the support of many people and organizations in the United States, Colombia and Ecuador. Although the reader will mostly recognize my voice throughout these pages, many individuals contributed to this research in different ways. From the academic discussions to the ethical debates and difficult conversations, all of them were helpful in providing feedback, challenging me with their questions, reminding me to stay loyal to my beliefs and methods and inspiring me in the final stretch of this research. My special gratitude goes to Dr. Mark Goodale, my committee chair, whose mentorship and friendship accompanied me throughout my years in SCAR. Your dedication and guidance not only provided important insights for this dissertation, but throughout my entire academic career. Thank you Mark for showing me how a passionate ethnographer engages and interacts in the field with rigor and critical thinking. My sincere gratitude also goes to Dr. Kevin Avruch, whose academic knowledge and advice went far beyond the classrooms at SCAR. Most of my understanding of the Conflict Analysis and Resolution (CAR) field as a vocation, rather than a job or a profession is due to him. Thank you Kevin for your guidance and for generously sharing with me your expertise and knowledge. My sincere thanks also go to Dr. John Dale, who was extremely important in giving shape to this research during its initial phase. His thoughtful suggestions regarding bibliographic sources helped to feed and inform my research from the beginning. Thank you John for your time, commitment and willingness to support my academic journey. I am also extremely grateful to the George Mason University Provost’s Office which supported me throughout my passage through SCAR. This dissertation is a product of their vote of confidence and faith in the university’s multi-cultural student body. Thank you to so many of my colleagues and friends at SCAR as well as to the administrative staff, who were always ready to answer my many, many questions. To Dr. Jo Won Jeong, my academic advisor; Dr. Sandra Cheldelin, Doctorate Program Director and other faculty members whose thoughtful engagement with the field make of SCAR a unique space for academic reflection and social awareness. Special and sincere thanks go to Dr. Christopher Mitchell and Dr. Wallace Warfield (+), with whom I had the privilege of sharing the preparation of several editions of the OAS workshops, and of learning iv from their views, efforts and commitment to advancing the field of Conflict Analysis and Resolution in the Latin American Region. Chris, it has been really an honor and privilege to work with and learn from you. In addition, many colleagues and friends in Quito, Cuenca, Bogota and Pasto were particularly helpful in accompanying my research progress. Especially, Claudia Gomez from the University of Pasto (Colombia), who managed to accommodate many of my requirements during the field work in the borderlands of Colombia and Ecuador. In Quito, several of my colleagues at the Latin American Faculty of Social Science (FLACSO) and at the Simón Bolívar Andean University, challenged me to think once again about the role of academia in social contexts marked by violence and conflict. Many thanks also to the many organizations in Ecuador that work on the matter of refuge that opened their doors for me to inquire about their work: the General Directorate of Refugees, UNHCR-Ecuador, the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society, the Jesuit Refugee Service, as well as organizations of Colombian refugees, especially National Federation of Organizations of Colombian Refugees in Ecuador (FENARE), among others. To my family in Ecuador and in the United States, but especially to my parents Manuel and Ruth who always stood by my side unconditionally in all the projects and decisions in my life. This is also your achievement and a testament to all the hard work and efforts that you devoted to me. To my loving companion in life, my husband Mac, who stood by my side with his solidarity and love and who performed several tasks in the completion of this dissertation: from careful editor of my text to mail courier taking books back and forth between Arlington, Virginia and the Dominican Republic (where this research was completed). To my sweet daughter Nina Rafaella, whose existence is my inspiration to continue searching for non-violent ways to achieve a more just, equal and peaceful world. To my dearest friends, Ana Maria Vicuña, Harbey Peña and Upulee Dasanayake, it was a truly a blessing to count with your support during the different stages of this process. To my dear friends and colleagues Maneshka Eliatamby and Yves-Renée Jennings, who besides continuously encouraging me during this whole research, also set the bar very high with their own academic achievements. Now we share the “academic sisterhood” besides that of being women dedicated to achieving social justice and peace around the world. I cannot finish these acknowledgements without expressing my deepest gratitude to the Colombian refugees who privileged me with their trust and knowledge, allowing me to transit in and out of their life experiences, which sometimes meant wandering through the prickly zones of oblivion and memory. Their accounts reflected in this research are sad reminders that there are no anonymous victims of violence; all of them have their stories, their passions, their struggles and achievements. Theirs are life stories v like yours and mine. It is only if these stories are told and kept in our collective memory, that perhaps they will be valued and transformed into the seeds of a more just world. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... x List of Abbreviations ......................................................................................................... xi Abstract............................................................................................................................xiii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION................................................................................. 1 General Overview of the Area ........................................................................................ 3 Border Dynamics: Sovereign Policies, the Absence of the State, and Vulnerability in Borderlands ..................................................................................................................... 8 Historical Background on Human Mobility.................................................................. 12 Key Terminology .......................................................................................................... 17 General Description of the Research............................................................................. 20 Organization of this Research ....................................................................................... 22 CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK...................................................... 25 Conceiving this Study ................................................................................................... 25 Significance of the Study .............................................................................................. 36 Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................. 38 Exploring the Research Questions