University of Calgary PRISM: University of Calgary's Digital Repository Graduate Studies The Vault: Electronic Theses and Dissertations 2020-01-09 Diversity of plant niches available for Hominin settlement during Upper Bed I- Lower Bed II: A phytolith perspective, Oldupai Gorge (Tanzania) Itambu, Makarius Peter Itambu, M. P. (2020). Diversity of plant niches available for Hominin settlement during Upper Bed I- Lower Bed II: A phytolith perspective, Oldupai Gorge (Tanzania) (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Calgary, Calgary, AB. http://hdl.handle.net/1880/111642 doctoral thesis University of Calgary graduate students retain copyright ownership and moral rights for their thesis. You may use this material in any way that is permitted by the Copyright Act or through licensing that has been assigned to the document. For uses that are not allowable under copyright legislation or licensing, you are required to seek permission. Downloaded from PRISM: https://prism.ucalgary.ca UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY Diversity of plant niches available for Hominin settlement during Upper Bed I- Lower Bed II: A phytolith perspective, Oldupai Gorge (Tanzania) by Makarius Peter Itambu A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ARCHAEOLOGY CALGARY, ALBERTA JANUARY, 2020 © Makarius Peter Itambu 2020 ABSTRACT This research focused on reconstructing the diversity of plant landscapes that framed hominin evolution in Oldupai Gorge. The study had two main overarching goals with interrelated objectives. The first goal was to assess the synergetic links between hominin habitats and ecological preferences during the Pleistocene at Oldupai Gorge, and the second was the reconstruction of vegetation patterns characteristic during Upper Most Bed I to Lower Most Bed II. It also aimed at the reconstruction of plant landscape and the diversity of ecological niches for hominin interactions in a variety of sedimentary environments during the 1.83-1.60 million years ago. In an attempt to understand the spatial-temporal distribution of plant landscape in specific sites and across the landscape, we employed high resolution and horizon level sampling approaches to examine differences in phytoliths representation between the sites and the exposed palaeosols. Sediments were systematically collected from trenches at Frida Leakey Korongo- North, Frida Korongo-West, Castle sites; and from the exposed palaeosols at the Lower Augitic Sanstone and at the Bird Print Tuff. Sediments were collected according to stratigraphic layering and features. In the laboratory, sediment samples were sieved, dispersed, and treated with acids for removal of inorganic and organic matter prior to heavy liquid separation. After phytolith extraction, microscopy, counting, classification, the phytolith morphotypes were analysed and interpreted in order to provide ecological inferences and thus explain the vegetation distribution between the sites. Phytolith assemblages applied in this research were used to identify the palaeosurface and ecosystems that characterised UMBI and LMBII sites to be able to infer whether the landscape wooded, forested, or grassland dominated environments. This is especially true ii because phytolith data are the key tool for palaeoecological interpretations that is used to inform about ancient landscapes that were inhabited by our ancestors, and the ability to characterise similarity of the vegetation cover existed during key period under study. The results from this study showed that the hominins during UMBI-LMBII occupied a landscape that was ranging from woodlands to mosaics of open to patchy forested landscapes. The phytolith morphotype distribution, their representatives and abundances together show a wooded landscape during UMBI-LMBII times. The statistical analyses that were performed show that the plant landscape was not significantly different between UMBI and LMBII in terms of vegetation structure. Thus, hominins could have occupied wooded, humid, and wet landscape as indicated by phytolith assemblage, which is characterised by the vegetation patterns indicative of woody taxa and herbaceous dicots. These types spatially and temporally dominate the landscape over grassy taxa during UMBI- LMBII. The abundance of palm phytoliths, and the presence of sedges and ferns could possibly suggest wet-humid or wetland environments with seasonal and permanent streams that would have attracted the hominin settlements. Arboreal phytolith morphotypes such as blocky, globular granulate, and tabular are abundantly represented chronologically and well preserved in the sediments, unlike the grassy indicators such as rondel, bilobates and, saddle morphotypes of various shapes. The documented phytoliths indicative of sedges (papillae) and ferns (tabular, and blocky bodies with striations) are suggestive of wetland habitats that would have provided hominin with variety of food resources such as drinkable water, plant foods, while palm trees would have served as area for stone tool manufacture under the shade, nuts processing, bone marrow exploitation or human sociality in different activities such as hunting and scavenging of meat resources. It is recommended that future research should expand upon the data from this study and use it in conjunction with modern iii referential baseline from the region to further explore and examine the vegetating dynamics towards the upper sections of Bed II-V and the younger sequences of Oldupai Gorge. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My doctoral research was funded by the Canadian Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council through its Partnership grant program 895-2016-1017. The University of Calgary through its Eyes High Doctoral Recruitment Scholarship and the VPR office provided generous support. I greatly appreciate the unique opportunity for capacity building given to my own institution, the University of Dar es Salaam, by the government and the people of Canada. I am very grateful to my supervisory committee and examination members: Drs. Mary McDonald, Dale Walde, Charles Mather and Pamela Willoughby. Many Tanzanian institutions made this work possible: The Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology (permit 2018-112-NA-2018-36), and the Tanzanian Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, through its Antiquities Division (permit 14/2017/2018) approved this work. Authorities at the Ngorongoro Conservation Area allowed us to enter the protected area (BE.504/620/01/53). The export license for the materials presented in this study were obtained from the Antiquities Division (EA.150/297/01: 5/2018/2019) and the Tanzanian Executive Secretary from the Mining Commission (00001258). I appreciate the long-term commitment, motivation, and encouragement from my advisor Julio Mercader Florín, whose tireless efforts towards the success of this dissertation are immeasurable, you are exemplary Professor! You are a wonderful dissertation supervisor who guided me from the beginning to the end. I am highly indebted to an extent I cannot afford to repay. I promise to continue our relationship for future endeavours. Prof. Mercader, together we climbed the mountains, sometimes we slipped and fell down, but always stood up together and v continued our daily academic life. With you, I travelled across the globe where you introduced me to various academic communities. I am short of words to describe your support. I say thank you! I want to acknowledge and express my deepest gratitude to the many people who helped complete this study, most of whom are from the Stone Tools, Diet, and Sociality (SDS) project. These wonderful people are: María Soto Quesada, Siobhán Clarke, Jamie Inwood, Robert Patalano, Laura Tucker, Patrick Lee, Aloyce Mwambwiga, Julien Favreau, Abdallah Mohamed, Alfred Mulinda, Kelvin Fella, Tolutope Akeju, David Isilebo, Joakim Gunnar Siljedal, and Femi Sowemimo. Truly, I feel so lucky and proud to belong to this an incredibly awesome team. SDS people, you are the incredible! I am particularly grateful for the many hours it took all of you to edit my Swanglish into proper academic English and with graphics and tables! I am also grateful to our project geologists’ Drs Hubbard and Durkin. My colleagues at the University of Dar es Salaam helped me so much, countless times, and I would not be where I am today without them. Very, very special thanks go to Dr.Pastory Magayane Bushozi of the University of Dar Es Salaam for his commitment to make sure that the research partnership between Canada and Tanzania remain sustainable. Thank you so much Professor Bushozi. This work could have not been accomplished without my traditional landowners: our Maasai colleagues, friends, and workers. I remember digging together in the drought, we used to eat, drink, and laugh altogether; you were truly inspirational during the hot sun and hard work at the Gorge. Our fantastic chef Reuben Daniel and your team: your foods were so delicious and treated me well, Elijah Kibulungwa (Mr. Sawasawa) you drove us through the hills and valleys, thank you brother. Lastly, I would like to extend my sincere thanks to my family for all their support during my absence in Tanzania. I feel so much indebted by my wife Irene, who raised our kids herself for vi more than four years while I was in Canada. Irene, you are a strong woman and I cannot wait to get back to Tanzania to see you, Gili, and Mughwae whom I have deprived from my parental love. I lost my beloved brother last year