NEGOTIATING SEXUALITY: ADOLESCENT INITIATION RITUALS AND CULTURAL CHANGE IN RURAL SOUTHERN TANZANIA By MEGHAN COLLEEN HALLEY Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Dissertation Adviser: Dr. Jill Korbin Department of Anthropology CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY May, 2012 CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES We hereby approve the thesis/dissertation of _____________________Meghan Colleen Halley_______________ candidate for the ________Doctor of Philosophy___________ degree (signed) ________Dr. Jill Korbin___________________ (chair of committee) ________Dr. Janet McGrath________________ ________Dr. Eileen Anderson-Fye___________ ________Dr. Scott Frank___________________ (date) ___September 23rd, 2011__ *We also certify that written approval has been obtained for any proprietary material contained therein. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES 4 LIST OF FIGURES 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 6 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 8 GLOSSARY 9 ABSTRACT 15 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 17 1.0 Statement of the Problem 17 1.1 Objectives 19 1.2 Significance 21 1.3 Overview of the Dissertation 23 CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND LITERATURE 29 2.0 Overview 29 2.1 Adolescent Initiation Rituals 33 2.2 Psychological Anthropology – The Individual and Culture 48 2.3 Globalization and Cultural Change 61 2.4 Conclusion 81 CHAPTER 3: THE HISTORY AND CONTEXT OF MTWARA 83 3.0 Overview 82 3.1 Profile of Rural Mtwara District 87 3.2 Mtwara in the 19th Century: The Making of the Makonde 96 3.3 Mtwara in the 20th Century: The “Making of a Periphery” 107 3.4 2000 to Present: The Making of Modern-Day Mtwara 117 3.5 Conclusion 124 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 125 4.0 Overview 125 4.1 Summary of Research Questions 126 4.2 Preliminary Research 127 4.3 Community Ethnography 129 4.4 In-Depth Interviews with Adolescents 135 1 4.5 Participant Observation in Initiation Rituals 147 4.6 Barabara Village Survey 152 4.7 Data Management and Analysis 154 4.8 Limitations 161 4.9 Conclusion 164 CHAPTER 5: GIRLS’ INITIATION RITUALS – UNYAGO 164 5.0 Overview 164 5.1 The Practice of Unyago in Rural Mtwara 165 5.2 The Structure of Unyago 178 5.3 Detailed Description of Unyago 190 5.4 Sexuality in Unyago 245 5.5 Conclusion 247 CHAPTER 6: BOYS’ INITIATION RITUALS – JANDO 248 6.0 Overview 248 6.1 Jando and Male Circumcision Practices in Tanzania 249 6.2 Structure of Jando 250 5.3 Detailed Description of Jando 261 6.4 Sexuality in Jando 293 6.5 Conclusion 294 CHAPTER 7: BEYOND THE RITUALS – ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY 295 7.0 Overview 295 7.1 Biopsychological Factors 298 7.2 Environmental/Economic Factors 205 7.3 Cultural Scripts – Developmental Pathways 314 7.4 Cultural Scripts – Adolescent Sexual Relationships 322 7.5 Conclusion 333 CHAPTER 8: FRICTION – EDUCATION, SEXUALITY AND CHANGE 334 8.0 Overview 334 8.1 Secondary Education in Rural Mtwara 336 8.2 Friction with the System – Adolescent Pregnancy 343 8.3 Shifting Expectations of Adolescent Sexuality 352 8.4 Conclusion 359 CHAPTER 9: NEGOTIATING MULTIPLE PATHWAYS 360 9.0 Overview 360 9.1 Four Girls, Four Pathways 362 2 9.2 Negotiating Sexual Subjectivity in Rural Mtwara 376 9.3 Conclusion 381 CHAPTER 10: CONCLUSION 383 10.0 Overview 383 10.1 Summary of Findings and Contributions 383 10.2 Future Directions 393 APPENDICES Appendix A: Map of Mnazi 397 Appendix B: Interview Schedule for Adolescent Interviews 398 Appendix C: Ritual Leaders Interview Questions 415 Appendix D: Madimba Village Survey Questions 416 Appendix E: Notes on Translation 417 Appendix F: Maps of Research Site 418 BIBLIOGRAPHY 420 3 List of Tables Table 1: Number of Communities Leaders Recruited by Field Site 134 Table 2: Number of Participants by Age and Gender in Satellite Field Sites 139 Table 3: Number of Participants by Gender and School Status in All Samples 141 Table 4: Type and Number of Rituals Observed in Each Field Site 147 Table 5: Number of Walombo Interviewed by Field Site 152 Table 6: Markers of Household Economic Status 160 Table 7: Number of Interview Participants Practicing Each Type of Unyago 171 Table 8: Type of Unyago Practiced by Religion/Tribal Subgroup 172 Table 9: Type of Unyago Practiced by Religion for Mozambican Makonde 173 Table 10: Type of Unyago Practiced by Religion for Tanzanian Makonde 174 Table 11: Type of Unyago Practiced by Religion for Coastal Makonde 175 Table 12: Type of Unyago Practiced by Religion for All Survey Participants 176 Table 13: Total Number of Wali Observed by Field Site and Type of Unyago 177 Table 14: Mean Age of Initiation for Wali by Field Site 182 Table 15: Number of Wali Observed in Jando in Each Field Site 257 Table 16: Difference Between Age of Puberty and Age of Sexual Debut 304 Table 17: Per Capita Income 2000-2009, Mtwara Region and National Average 309 Table 18: Continuing Education by Household Wealth 340 Table 19: Who Studies Under More Difficult Conditions, Boys or Girls? 346 Table 20: Responses to Premarital Pregnancy by Villager/Student 356 4 List of Figures Figure One: Under-Five Mortality Rates in Tanzania 93 5 Acknowledgements I feel acutely the limits of language as I attempt to express my gratitude for the many people who have supported me through the long process of completing this dissertation. This research made possible by the support of a National Science Foundation Doctoral Dissertation Research Improvement Grant (DDIG#0850672) and a Philanthropic Education Organization (PEO) Scholar Award. I would like to particularly thank Mrs. Fifi Pfahl and the Sandusky Chapter of the PEO for sponsoring my application. Preliminary research for this dissertation was supported by a Lemelson/Society for Psychological Anthropology Pre-Dissertation Award and an Eva L. Pancoast Memorial Fellowship Award from the College of Arts and Sciences at Case Western Reserve University. First, to all of the participants in this study, thank you for your patience and openness in the face of my often highly personal questions. You welcomed me into your lives and tolerated my ignorance with humor and grace. In addition, the staff of Femina HIP, in particular Dr. Minou Fuglesang, provided me with an academic home in Tanzania and were always there to support me in a moment of need. To my research assistants, friends, and confidants in Mtwara: Ablari Nambole, Yusuph Kasembe, Chande Makunula, Anna Beda, Farida Ngumbu and Rashidi Nambondola, and the students and teachers at Mnazi Secondary School. You taught me valuable lessons every day and helped me to laugh at and learn from my many mistakes and social blunders. This project would not have been possible without your support, insights, friendship. 6 To my doctoral committee members, Drs. Jill Korbin, Janet McGrath, Eileen Anderson-Fye, and Scott Frank, thank you for inspiring, encouraging and guiding me. Your unwavering support has made this project possible. In particular, Dr. Jill Korbin has been my mentor for more than six years and has gone above and beyond to provide me with the support and encouragement, for which I will be forever grateful. Thank you to my many friends who have supported me through this process, in particular my fellow graduate students. You have helped me through countless late nights of work with empathy and humor. And finally, to my parents, Phil and Ellen Halley, and my sisters, Beth and Laura, for all of the countless ways you have supported and loved me throughout this journey, even when I know you often wished I would just come home. And to Georgi, who has walked with me through the last difficult steps of this long process. Words cannot express my gratitude. 7 List of Abbreviations ASP: Adolescent Socialization Project CDR: Crude Death Rate HAP: Harvard Adolescent Project HIV/AIDS: Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome HMIS: HIV/AIDS and Malaria Indicator Survey HRAF: Human Relations Area Files MoEVT: Ministry of Education and Vocational Training NGO: Non-governmental Organization PHDR: Population Health and Development Report PSLE: Primary School Leaving Examination STD: Sexually Transmitted Disease TDHS: Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey TFR: Total Fertility Rate TNBS: Tanzanian National Bureau of Statistics TSH: Tanzanian Shillings 8 Glossary Aibu: shame or embarrassment. Anahaku: the general term for the state of a child’s life before passing through unyago or jando. Chapati: traditional Tanzanian flatbread made from corn flour, water, and oil. Chibuku: local beer made from fermented sorghum and corn flour. Chiputu: the space (either in a designated home or in the forest) whether girls may gather during the middle days of unyago to practice their songs and dances. Chakula: commonly translated as food, but also used to specifically refer to the large portion of starchy food that forms the basis of a typical Tanzanian lunch and dinner. Chikula: the traditional name-changing ceremony performed during the final days of jando. Chiramabo/Virambo: singular/plural, Makonde term for political grouping of overlapping clan units, organized by territory. Chiputu: the location where the wali gather during the middle days of unyago to practice mizimu. Chivelevele: the most common version of unyago practiced in rural Mtwara. Also refers to the final ngoma of this type of unyago. Dawa: literally translates as “medicine,” in unyago is used to refer to substances or practices used in ceremonies to cleanse, bless, or protect the wali. Gongo: the distilled local liquor made from the fruit of the cashew tree. Hodi: the word used to alert one of your presence or arrival, similar to knocking on the door. Inshallah: Arabic phrase meaning “God willing.” Ishara: generally meaning “signs,” but can be used to refer to the various ways that girls may communicate their affection for boys indirectly. Jando: the male initiation ritual, also used to refer to the tree and thatch structure the boys live in during this ritual.