Consuming mobility A practice approach to sustainable mobility transitions Jorrit O. Nijhuis Consuming mobility A practice approach to sustainable mobility transitions Jorrit O. Nijhuis Thesis committee Promotors Prof. Dr G. Spaargaren Professor of Environmental Policy for Sustainable Lifestyles and Consumption Wageningen University Prof. Dr J.T. Mommaas Professor of Leisure Studies Tilburg University Other members Prof. Dr P.H. Feindt, Wageningen University Dr P. Peters, Maastricht University Prof. Dr J.W. Schot, Eindhoven University of Technology Prof. Dr J.C.M. van Eijndhoven, Erasmus University Rotterdam This research was conducted under the auspices of the Wageningen Institute for Environment and Climate Research Consuming mobility A practice approach to sustainable mobility transitions Jorrit O. Nijhuis Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of doctor at Wageningen University by the authority of the Rector Magnificus Prof. Dr M.J. Kropff, in the presence of the Thesis Committee appointed by the Academic Board to be defended in public on Tuesday 10 December 2013 at 1.30 p.m. in the Aula. Jorrit O. Nijhuis Consuming mobility – A practice approach to sustainable mobility transitions 270 pages. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, NL (2013) With references, with summaries in Dutch and English ISBN: 978-94-6173-772-4 ISBN: 978-90-8686-242-9 Consuming mobility 7 Preface Considering that this thesis is strongly inspired by Giddens’ constitution of society, why not start with a very fitting quote from his work: ‘this was not a particularly easy book to write’! All in all it has taken me over eight years to finish this thesis and during the last half its completion has balanced continuously on the edge of a knife. Lamenting on the hardships of the journey has been done more than enough though, so I will not bother you with that. Especially as my curiosity for the subject at hand, which, together with the aspiration to find educated work, prompted me start this research, has never abandoned me. Individual and collective human behaviour, especially in the fields of sustainable consumption and production and everyday mobility, is simply a fascinating world to explore. It continues to be a mind-boggling puzzle to connect the obvious necessity for radical change towards sustainability at the society level with the scope of everyday life interests of citizen- consumers, especially in times of economic crisis. Hopefully, this thesis has made a worthwhile contribution. During my research I have discussed my work with many different experts working in science, policy, consultancy or business. From these experts I want to express my gratitude to Wendy Williams who selflessly ensured my way in to the private sector which resulted in two very useful case studies. Furthermore, for their contribution to my research I would like to thank Frank Versteege (marketing manager at Toyota) and Dick Bakker (commercial director at Arval) who showed me the meaning of service. Of course I also want to thank the 3Js (professors Johan Schot, Jan Rotmans, and John Grin), the three directors of the Knowledge network for System Innovations and Transitions (KSI) who made the Contrast research program possible. It has been a great honour to meet, study, learn, laugh and dance (or at least something that was aimed to look like making rhythmical movements) together. In the same light I want to thank my fellow PhD-students from the KSI mobility research group, especially Marc Dijk and Bonno Pel, who provided a safe and inspirational environment to discuss sustainable mobility transitions. My research was conducted at the Environmental Policy Group at Wageningen University, a place which I have always felt to have an academically stimulating and atmospherically mellow work environment. I would like to thank the many national and international PhD-students and staff members who have made it such a nice location to work. Though many people come and go, the genuine ENP feeling always remains present. Bas van Vliet, my short educational ‘career’ was mainly conducted together with you and I must say that it was very pleasant and worthwhile. Astrid Hendriksen, thank you for guiding the focus group sessions with the car salesmen and car purchasers, and if I’m not mistaken, and I rarely am, I still owe you a bottle of whisky for a bet lost long ago. In addition, at the Veluweloop you both showed me year after year that running is definitely not one of my talents. Obviously, I want to consider the other members of the Contrast research programme as well, especially Elizabeth Sargant and Lenny Putman, my fellow PhD students at ENP, who ensured that this was never a solitary enterprise. Desirée, our life and PhD trajectories were and will always be strongly entwined. Typically, you have flown of towards far- away tourist destinations while I continue to focus on daily commutes. What else can I say but that it was like passing ships in the night. 8 Consuming mobility As tradition goes, and I might be considered a traditional person, many credits go out to Corry whose collective and refreshingly down-to-earth spirit in the individualist world of academia far outweighs her secretarial and organisational skills. Thanks also go out to professor Arthur Mol, the chair of the Environmental Policy Group. I have the highest regard for his ability to perform at a world-class level both in academic publications and in academic management, and I’m sure he will turn out to be a supernatural being in disguise. Naturally, special thanks are in order for my two promotors, professor Gert Spaargaren and professor Hans Mommaas. I can easily remember the effort I had to put in understanding the theoretical debates, especially in the first and second year of my PhD research. Often after an intense discussion I walked back to my room feeling I more or less understood every theoretical line of reasoning only to sense the knowledge acquired slipping rapidly through my fingers with every step taken to my room while vigorously trying to hold on to the grains of knowledge in my hands in order not to arrive empty-handed. Luckily, these theoretical discussions have become increasingly accessible to me over the years. Though sociology will never be an easy subject for me, it has greatly improved my understanding of social life. Furthermore, I need to thank Gert for his perseverance, patience, understanding, never wavering trust in my scientific capabilities, and the occasional fatherly advice throughout the whole endeavour. Over the last four years I have been working at Rijkswaterstaat which has proven to be an interesting and enjoyable organisation to work for. I want to thank all the colleagues who ‘make’ the organisation work as it is, especially my direct colleagues of the ‘team behaviour’ whose youthful spirits and social science perspectives on traffic and mobility is very inspiring. I want to thank Marlies Emmen and Jolanda Vis for putting trust in a PhD-researcher at a time when knowledge was not unquestionably considered to be an asset at Rijkswaterstaat, Henk Pauwels and Gordon de Munck for teaching me so many things about the world of mobility management, and Loes Aarts for being the best colleague one could wish for and for continuously stimulating me to step out of my comfort zone. Special thanks are in order for those who supported me when life turned towards the inevitable less enjoyable periods which every PhD researcher is hunted by. I feel fortunate to have spent much time with my (indoor-soccer-loving) friends from Feyenesse and the Charismatische Utrechtsche Mannschaft. Furthermore, I have the pleasure to be surrounded by the smartest group of friends that I know of, though it seems we invest much effort to reveal that fact. The fun we have had in old industrial English cities, at pop- and pub-quizzes, parties and midnight gaming sessions has been simply ridiculous. More specifically I want to thank Merlijn and Hannah for their warmth, Raoel and Jan-Willem for long-lasting friendships, Vincent – Zenmaster – van der Vlies for his never-ending advice, and Vibhi van Wersch who is like a brother I never had. Naturally, I need to thank my father, who taught me to be respectful to the environment, and Corine for pushing me to continue working on my PhD. Also, I am glad that my sister and her family are here to share this moment of joy. Maartje, we are only together for a relatively short time and luckily you have been spared the bulk of the unpleasantness of being a PhD-student’s partner. Nevertheless, you understand better than all what this trajectory may take and you already know me better than I perhaps find comfortable. We are somewhere between the click of the light and the start of a dream. We don’t know where we’re going, but let’s go. Consuming mobility 9 Table of contents Preface 7 Abbreviations 13 Chapter 1. Introduction 15 1.1 Are you driving a flex-fuel vehicle? 15 1.2 Mobility as a complex problem 16 1.3 The approach of system innovations and transitions 18 1.3.1 The multi-level perspective 19 1.3.2 Criticism on the absence of citizen-consumers in the transition perspective 20 1.4 Models of sustainable consumer behaviour 21 1.5 A practice approach to sustainable mobility 22 1.6 Objective and research questions 23 1.7 Methodology and outline of the book 23 Chapter 2. Shifting policy perspectives on sustainable mobility. Towards a demand-oriented mobility policy? 27 2.1 Introduction 27 2.2 The issue of sustainable mobility 28 2.2.1 Defining sustainable mobility 28 2.2.2 Environmental dimensions of sustainable mobility 32 2.2.3 Trends in environmental impacts of mobility 34 2.2.4 To shift or not to shift? 39 2.2.5 Sustainable mobility: resumé 39 2.3 Storylines with respect to the governance of sustainable mobility 40 2.3.1 Discourses in UK mobility policy 40 2.3.2 Discourses in Dutch mobility policy 43 2.3.3 Synthesis 48 2.4 Innovation and mobility, the role of citizen-consumers in sustainability transitions 51 10 Consuming mobility Chapter 3.