INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter free, while others may be from any type of computer primer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely afreet reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand corner and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6” x 9” black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. UMI A Bell & Howell Information Company 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Aibor MI 48106-1346 USA 313/761-4700 800/521-0600 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with with permission permission of the of copyright the copyright owner. owner.Further reproductionFurther reproduction prohibited without prohibited permission. without permission. AUNTIES AND GURUS: WOMEN'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO ASIAN INDIAN DANCE by Christel Stevens submitted to the Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of The American University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Performing Arts: Dance Chair: 1 Dr. Naima PrevotsNa Valeri Dr. Dolores Koenig 1997 The American University Washington, D.C. 20016 THB AMEBICM UMIVEESITY LIBR1BX Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 1387033 Copyright 1998 by Stevens, Christel Martha All rights reserved. UMI Microform 1387033 Copyright 1997, by UMI Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. UMI 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, MI 48103 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. AUNTIES AND GURUS: WOMEN'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO ASIAN INDIAN DANCE by Christel Stevens ABSTRACT India holds a unique place in the dance world, with its array of different dance techniques. Each technique has its own history, and women have played important roles in most of the styles, having been identified as the most frequent performers of dance in history, through textual references and scriptual evidence. Odissi, Bharata Natyam, Kathak, and Manipuri dance styles are discussed, showing the contributions made to their development by female dancers. It is demonstrated that, for women, dance is a vehicle for crossing boundaries established by society to enforce the male-dominated social hierarchy. Part of the research for this thesis was a study, by the author, of Indian dance teachers in the Washington, DC, metropolitan area during 1995-1996, which found that the teachings of these women, like those of their counterparts in India, perpetuate the oral tradition of Indian dance. ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ............................................... ii CHAPTER 1. Introduction .................................. I 2. Women as Dancers in India: Early Period .... 5 3. Dance Forms and Their H i s t o r y ................. 33 4. Twentieth Century Dance Revival ............... 57 5. Indian Dancers in America ..................... 86 6. Conclusion ...................................... 112 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................. 118 iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER ONE Introduction Human beings dance for several reasons. The word "dance" may be defined as any rhythmic, repetitive, or expressive movement performed for its own sake, rather than for a utilitarian purpose such as transportation or food- gathering. One category of dancing, dance performed to attract a mate, is common to animals and humans alike. Even birds and fish in some cases dance before mating. Among humans, there are forms of social or recreational dancing which in general may be said to fall into the category of mating displays. Dance as a form of artistic expression and dance as a component of religious ritual are solely characteristic of human culture. These latter two categories of dancing are the subject matter of the present study. However, the complexity of human nature requires one to recognize that any given body of dance compositions may be used in different categories, at various times or on various occasions. Dance performed as an element of religious ritual can sometimes develop into the most inspired artistic expression, as will be seen in the course of this paper. Similarly, dance of any kind can be used as a mating 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 display. Dance theoretician Judith Hanna states in her Dance. Sex and Gender. Even when a dancer intends only to explicate movement forms, the dancer's body is said to disappear into the movement; even when the shape of the body is obscured by costume, signs and symbols of sexuality may be read into the dance and erotic or lustful feeling aroused. This paper will discuss ways in which dance in India has crossed boundaries, from mating display to religious ritual to artistic expression, and how (in the context of the late twentieth century) dance continues to manifest itself in all the categories simultaneously . As an occupation of women, particularly, it will be demonstrated that dance can be and is used as a vehicle for crossing boundaries established by society to enforce the male- dominated social hierarchy. Dance may be described as the art form which leaves little trace of its realization. Because it occurs in space and time, yet has no concrete form outside the body of the dancer, it is evanescent. Yet many artists in other media have been inspired by dance and have striven to reproduce its temporary beauty in more permanent forms. Through their efforts we are able to trace the history of dance. These marks and signs that indicate the effect of dance performance on the viewer include music, prose, poetry, 1 Judith Lynne Hanna, Dance. Sex and Gender (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 5 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 painting, sculpture, and architecture. Reference will be made to all such sources as they have relevance to the history of dance in India and the way in which women particularly have been able to contribute to that history. The second chapter of this thesis will be an historical overview, placing dance in the context of the history of civilization in India. This will not be an exhaustive historical account, but rather a description of the backdrop before which the dramatic development of dance in India has occurred. To continue the metaphor of a theatrical production, women who have played important roles in dance history will be spotlighted. The roles played by men cannot be ignored, but their contributions have been exhaustively described in the plethora of books about Indian dance published to date. The curious reader is referred to the bibliography for further information. The third chapter will introduce the reader to several different dance forms which exist in India today. As a nation constructed from a conglomeration of widely variant ethnic groups, and sub-cultures, India holds a unique place in the world of dance. No other single nation can boast such a bewildering array of highly differentiated dance techniques. Each technique has its own history, and women have played an important role in most of the styles. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Four major styles will be discussed in terms of the contributions made to their development by female dancers. These four dance forms are Odissi, Bharata Natyam, Kathak, and Manipuri. These four forms were chosen as examples because of the preponderance of historical references to them in available texts, and because of the contribution by women to their development. There are several other dance styles, perhaps equal in antiquity, which have not been treated fully in this paper. They are Mohini At tarn, Chau, Kuchipudi, Kathakali, Sattriya and perhaps others. The author does not wish to imply by excluding these forms from the current thesis that they are not proper subjects for research and commentary. The fourth chapter will deal with twentieth-century women who have made important contributions to the development of dance in India. Again, several women will be discussed and many, many important dancers will be left out The author feels that in the thesis format,