Essentials of Modern Materials Science and Engineering This page intentionally left blank Essentials of Modern Materials Science and Engineering James Newell Rowan University John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER Daniel Sayre ACQUISITIONS EDITOR Jennifer Welter SENIOR PRODUCTION EDITOR Sujin Hong EXECUTIVE MARKETING MANAGER Christopher Ruel SENIOR DESIGNER Hope Miller COVER PHOTO I DreamStock/Superstock SENIOR ILLUSTRATION EDITOR Sandra Rigby SENIOR PHOTO EDITOR Ellinor Wagner EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Mark Owens MARKETING ASSISTANT Chelsee Pengal This book was set in 10/12 sabon roman by GGS Book Services PMG and printed and bound by Von Hoffmann. The cover was printed by Von Hoffmann. This book is printed on acid free paper. ϱ Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher or authorization through payment of the appropriate per- copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, website www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, website www.wiley.com/go/permissions. To order books or for customer service, please call 1-800-CALL WILEY (225-5945). Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Newell, James (James A.) Essentials of modern materials science and engineering / James Newell. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 978-0-471-75365-0 (cloth) 1. Materials science—Textbooks. I. Title. TA403.N445 2008 620.1'1—dc22 2008032212 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is dedicated to my daughter, Jessica Lauren Newell, whose remark- able patience and love endured through the long nights and weekends of my working on this book. This page intentionally left blank ABOUT THE AUTHOR Dr. Newell was born in Turtle Creek, Pennsylvania (a suburb of Pittsburgh). He received his B.S. in Chemical and Biomedical Engineering from Carnegie- Mellon University in 1988, M.S. in Chemical Engineering from Penn State in 1990, and Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from Clemson University in 1994. His dissertation focused on the conversion of PBO to carbon fi ber, and he received the American Carbon Society’s Mrozowski award for best student paper presentation in 1993. After completing his doctorate, he stayed on at Clemson for one year as a visiting assistant professor before accepting a tenure-track position at the University of North Dakota in 1995. He moved to Rowan University as an associate professor in 1998 and was promoted to full professor in 2004. He began serving as the interim associate provost for Academic Affairs in 2007. Dr. Newell has published more than 30 articles in Chemical Engineering Education, High-Performance Polymers, Carbon, International Journal of Engineering Education, Journal of SMET Education, Recent Research Development in Applied Polymer Science, Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, Journal of Applied Polymer Science, and Advances in Engineering Education; authored the section on carbon fi bers for the Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Technology, 3rd edition; and co-authored a textbook chapter on the spinning of carbon fi ber precursors. He also served as the expert witness in a major national class action lawsuit addressing failure in bulletproof vests. His work has been presented at international conferences in Spain, Argentina, Austria, England, Australia, and United States. In 2001, he received the Raymod W. Fahien Award from The American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE) for contributions to engineering education. In 1997, he was named the Dow Outstanding New Faculty Member by the North Midwest Section of ASEE. His current research activities include examina- tions of structure-property relationships in high-performance composites, enhancing ballistic materials, and developing metacognitive engineering teams. Dr. Newell is an avid baseball fan, lifelong Steelers fan, and voracious reader. His favorite book is John Irving’s A Prayer for Owen Meany. He enjoys spending time with his wife, Heidi, daughter, Jessica (born January 17, 2000), and three cats: Dakota, Bindi, and Smudge. About the Author xi This page intentionally left blank PREFACE Why Should You Use This Book? • It’s practical and applicable. It is our goal that students be prepared to make informed materials selection decisions after completing the course and using this text. • It’s balanced. A variety of materials are presented to provide a broad overview of materials available to engineers. • It’s visual. This book’s strong use of visuals help students understand the concepts better than simply reading about them. Philosophy I have taught materials science for 12 years. Not having found an existing text that quite fi t my course and my students, I developed this smaller, more focused text, appropriate for: • Engineering programs (including aerospace, bio, chemical, civil, electrical, industrial and mechanical engineering, and others) that offer only a single one- semester or one-quarter materials science course. • Balanced and appropriate coverage of metals, polymers, composites, and areas of emerging importance including biomaterials and nanomaterials. • Focusing on fundamental issues that factor into materials selection and design including ethics, life cycle considerations, and economics. • Sophomore and junior students’ technical background. • Teaching measurement of materials properties, and dealing with vari- ability in measurement, leaving the students prepared both to measure materials properties and to interpret the data. This book begins with four fundamental tenets: • The properties of a material are determined by its structure. Processing can alter that structure in specifi c and predictable ways. • The behavior of materials is grounded in science and is understandable. • The properties of all materials change over time with use and exposure to environmental conditions. • When selecting a material, suffi cient and appropriate testing must be performed to ensure that the material will remain suitable throughout the reasonable life of the product. Audience This text assumes that the students are at least sophomores, so that they are familiar with basic chemical bonding and the periodic table. But it is an Preface xiii introductory materials course, so there will be no differential equations, per- colation theory, detailed quantum mechanics, statistical thermodynamics, or other advanced topics. Focus on Key Concepts and Fundamentals This book is designed as an introduction to the fi eld, not as a comprehensive guide to all materials science knowledge. Instead of going into great detail in many areas, the book provides key concepts and fundamentals students need to understand materials science and make informed decisions. An example of the philosophy is found in the materials testing section. Although countless variations exist in testing techniques, the chapter focuses on operating prin- ciples and the property to be measured, rather than confusing the students with exposition on variations and exceptions. That material is beyond the scope of most introductory courses. Economics, Environment, Ethics, and Life Cycle The importance of economics in decision making and consideration of the en- tire life cycle of products are themes throughout the book and appear in home- work problems in almost every chapter. Icons in the margins identify areas of the book with this focus: ECONOMICS ENVIRONMENT ETHICS ANIMATIONS Pedagogy CONVERSATIONAL TONE The book is written in a conversational tone, designed to facilitate student learning. When I piloted the text in my materials science class, the anonymous comments from students included statements like “I didn’t need to read it fi ve times to start to understand it.” LEARNING OBJECTIVES Detailed learning objectives at the beginning of each chapter provide specifi c goals of the chapter. They highlight what you should be able to do if you really understand the material. CHAPTER SUMMARY A summary at the end of each chapter revisits the learning objectives. xiv Preface HOMEWORK PROBLEMS The homework problems at the end of each chapter are a blend of numerical questions (e.g., calculate the tensile strength of a 0.509 in2 beam) and open- ended qualitative questions (e.g., compare and contrast the advantages and disadvantages of fi llings made from dental composites with those made from amalgam) that require deeper understanding and detailed explanations that are much harder to copy. Topical Coverage and Organization The fi rst chapter is an introduction to classes of materials and a brief coverage of issues that impact material selection and design (chemistry, sustainability and green engineering, economics, and so on). Chapter 2 addresses structure in materials (crystallography) and how fl aws impact those structures. Chapter 3 introduces the fundamental materials properties of materials and the basic tests used to measure those properties. Chapters 4–7 introduce the primary classes of materials, including new topics needed to understand the underlying science and consideration of commercial applications. Chapter 8 addresses