CONTENTS EDITORIAL 2 by Vasu Gounden FEATURES 3 Resolving Land Disputes in Burundi by Jenny Theron 11 Effectively Confronting a Regional Threat: Somali Piracy by Brian Wilson 19 The Challenges of Small Arms and Light Weapons in Africa by Rachel Stohl and Doug Tuttle 27 Explaining the December 2008 Military Coup d’État in Guinea by Issaka K. Souaré 34 Migration and Xenophobia in South Africa by Christy McConnell 41 Reconciliation, Truth and Justice: Confronting the Dilemmas by Tendaiwo Peter Maregere 48 Questioning Reintegration Processes in Northern Uganda by Grace Maina BOOK 55 The Resolution of African Conflicts: The Management of Conflict Resolution and Post-conflict Reconstruction REVIEW by Sadiki Koko conflict trends I 1 EDITORIAL BY VASU GOUNDEN In the last nine months, there have been several effects of war on their economies. Both countries are major armed crises in the world. These crises included currently pursuing ambitious development agendas the massive onslaught of Russian forces against from very low economic bases. Any further disruption Georgian forces, the Sri Lankan government forces of their economies now will plunge them into deeper against the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) crises and prolong their development plans by several rebels, Israeli forces against the forces of Hamas, decades. and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) Pragmatic solutions that are based on mutual government forces against the National Congress benefit, interests and needs are necessary today. In for the Defence of the People (CNDP) forces of rebel the current global economic crisis, the world cannot leader, General Laurent Nkunda. These crises do not afford to resort merely to costly military means to signify a good beginning to the year 2009, nor are they resolve conflicts. Our first response must be to engage positive indicators of – and for – conflict resolution. in dialogue and to seek political solutions. Military Each of these cases have been characterised by interventions, if at all necessary, must complement a significant number of casualties, and none of the dialogue and political solutions. conflicts – except for that involving the DRC – seem It is, therefore, refreshing to observe the United any closer to being resolved. On the contrary, these States’ (US) new policy commitment to move away onslaughts may have served to harden attitudes and from military solutions as a first response, and entrench the positions of the hardliners on all sides. towards dialogue and political solutions instead. There This means that prospects of resolving these conflicts is no doubt that the US is a major participant in the are fading, and we will likely be facing protracted global military industry – as a protagonist in conflicts conflicts in these regions. like those in Iraq and Afghanistan, or as a supplier The DRC, however, may be a notable exception. of weapons to countries such as Israel. The current The reason for this is the major step that was taken by rapprochement between Russia and the US also the governments of Rwanda and the DRC to negotiate bodes well for global stability, since Russia is also a their differences. The government of Rwanda accused major supplier of weapons in the world, as well as a the DRC government of arming members of the former protagonist in regional conflicts. Armed Forces of Rwanda, who allegedly committed Such efforts must also be complemented by genocide in Rwanda and then fled to the DRC. The DRC other major global players, such as China and India, government, on the other hand, accused the Rwandan so that there is a global reduction in arms manufacture government of arming General Nkunda’s forces. Both and supply, armed conflict, and armed or military governments denied the respective accusations. By interventions, and a greater emphasis placed on means of negotiations in December 2008, the two dialogue instead. This requires that there be a renewed governments agreed to launch joint operations to and genuine global commitment to dialogue, including disarm both groups of armed insurgents. providing financial resources and skilled personnel Although the agreement between the who are capable of promoting and facilitating dialogue governments of Rwanda and the DRC involves a around the world. military offensive, it is based on a political solution with a common purpose. It is underpinned by the resolve of two pragmatic leaders, who have waged Vasu Gounden is the Founder and Executive war previously and have experienced the devastating Director of ACCORD. 2 I conflict trends RESOLVING LAND DISPUTES IN BURUNDI WRITTEN BY JENNY THERON REUTERS / THE BIGGER PICTURE BIGGER THE / REUTERS Burundi: History and Context the Arusha negotiations commenced and included Burundi is a small landlocked country in central the government of Burundi and various armed and Africa with a population of approximately eight million unarmed groups, and opposition parties.1 These people. In the 1890s, the independent kingdom became negotiations resulted in the signing of the Arusha Peace a German protectorate until the First World War, when it and Reconciliation Agreement for Burundi (hereafter came under Belgian authority. In 1962, Burundi gained referred to as “the Arusha Agreement”) in August its independence, but the constitutional monarchy 2000, followed by the establishment of the Transitional was abolished four years later with the arrival of the Government of Burundi. In 2005, democratic elections republican system. Since the country’s independence, were held in Burundi and Pierre Nkurunziza, leader of it has experienced multiple conflicts between both the former armed movement, the National Council for ethnic groups and political factions. In summary, half the Defense of Democracy – Forces for the Defense of a million people died during the crises of 1965, 1972, 1988, 1991 and 1993. The greatest number of deaths – approximately 300 000 – was a result of the crisis that Above: Land is an important socio-economic asset in followed the assassination of the first democratically Burundi, since access to it is often linked to wealth elected president, Melchior Ndadaye, in 1993. In 1996, and survival. conflict trends I 3 REUTERS / THE BIGGER PICTURE BIGGER THE / REUTERS Land disputes occur when returnees arrive in their home countries to find that their land and properties have been occupied by others. Democracy (CNDD-FDD) – was eventually inaugurated is often linked to wealth and survival. As a result, land as the president of Burundi. Since the signing of the and its significance is frequently an important issue Arusha Agreement, the Transitional Government in widespread violence, as well as a critical element and the current government have signed additional in peacebuilding and economic reconstruction in ceasefire agreements with the remaining armed post-conflict situations. Land-related challenges movements. Burundi has now taken considerable in post-conflict environments often occur when steps towards becoming a post-conflict country. returnees (former refugees and displaced people) In general, countries attempting post-conflict find their properties and land occupied by individuals reconstruction and peace consolidation face a number or groups. In order to consolidate peace, it is of of obstracles, including land-related challenges. utmost importance for these challenges to be clearly Burundi is no exception. This article examines the understood and successfully addressed.2 land conflict challenges in post-conflict Burundi and In Burundi, conflict resulted in refugees fleeing explores the various initiatives underway to address to neighbouring countries, especially Tanzania. More this issue. specifically, the 1972 crisis led to between 200 000 and 300 000 people fleeing the country, while the 1993 Post-conflict Land Issues crisis led to approximately 400 000 people fleeing The importance of land should never be Burundi.3 The signing of the Arusha Agreement, underestimated. In many societies, especially poorer followed by the establishment of the Transitional ones, land is a socio-economic asset, since access to it Government, resulted in a more secure and stable 4 I conflict trends situation in Burundi. Accordingly, in 2001, spontaneous The population density in Burundi is 250 persons repatriation was noticeable, while in 2002 the United per square kilometre (km²), increasing to over 400 Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) persons per km² in arable areas, while the population commenced the facilitation of repatriation of willing growth rate is 3.4%.5 Consequently, in Burundi a refugees from refugee camps in western Tanzania. In high population density with an agriculture-based June 2006, the UNHCR began promoting repatriation. economy results in the over-exploitation of land, soil From 2002 to 2008 the UNHCR, in collaboration with degradation and crop disease. Land, therefore, is not partner organisations, repatriated 473 865 refugees only considered to be extremely valuable, but disputes from Tanzania back to Burundi, with another 263 496 relating to land are frequent, since a shortage of land remaining outside the country.4 makes acquiring or claiming back land extremely Once back in Burundi, returnees have to deal difficult for returnees and other vulnerable groups.6 with issues relating to reintegration and reconciliation If a large number of returnees are not able to reclaim including, for many, the challenge of reclaiming their their land and other properties, their frustrations