Measuring and Analysing Fungal Diversity on Temporal and Spatial Scale in Multiple Comprehensive-Taxa Inventories Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Naturwissenschaften vorgelegt beim Fachbereich 15 der Johann Wolfgang Goethe - Universität in Frankfurt am Main von Stefanie Rudolph aus Werneck Frankfurt am Main 2016 D30 Dissertation vom Fachbereich Biowissenschaften der Johann Wolfgang Goethe - Universität als Dissertation angenommen. Dekan: Prof. Dr. Meike Piepenbring Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Meike Piepenbring Zweitgutachter: PD Dr. Matthias Schleuning Datum der Disputation: Table of contents Table of contents Table of contents ................................................................................................. I Abbreviations ..................................................................................................... IV Summary ............................................................................................................ V Zusammenfassung ............................................................................................ XI 1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 1 1.1 The fungi ............................................................................................... 1 1.1.1 Ecological groups ........................................................................... 4 1.1.2 Systematic groups .......................................................................... 7 1.1.3 Morphologic and molecular identification in monitoring ................ 12 1.2 Fungal diversity ................................................................................... 14 1.2.1 Fungal diversity worldwide ............................................................ 15 1.2.2 Fungal diversity at a local scale .................................................... 16 1.2.3 Assessment of fungal diversity ..................................................... 17 1.3 Temporal variation in fungal diversity .................................................. 20 1.3.1 Seasonal changes ........................................................................ 20 1.3.2 Drivers of changes ........................................................................ 21 1.4 Aims of the study ................................................................................. 22 2 Material and methods ................................................................................ 24 2.1 Study areas ......................................................................................... 24 2.1.1 Taunus (Germany), main study area ............................................ 25 2.1.2 Majagua (Panama) ....................................................................... 29 2.1.3 Bulau (Germany) .......................................................................... 29 2.1.4 Somiedo (Spain) ........................................................................... 32 2.1.5 Kleinwalsertal (Austria) ................................................................. 35 2.2 Sampling and identification ................................................................. 37 I Table of contents 2.2.1 General methods of sampling, recording and documentation ....... 37 2.2.2 Sampling methodology in different areas ...................................... 40 2.2.3 Recording of weather data in the Taunus area ............................. 41 2.3 Statistical analyses .............................................................................. 42 2.3.1 General methods .......................................................................... 42 2.3.2 Estimations of richness ................................................................. 44 2.3.3 Comparison of several areas ........................................................ 45 2.3.4 Temporal changes of fungal occurrence in the Taunus ................ 47 3 Results ....................................................................................................... 50 3.1 Fungal diversity in the Taunus ............................................................ 50 3.1.1 Richness of recorded fungi and plants .......................................... 50 3.1.2 Fungal diversity patterns in taxonomic and ecological groups ...... 52 3.1.3 Fungal richness estimations ......................................................... 57 3.2 Spatial variation of fungal richness ...................................................... 61 3.2.1 Comparison of samplings in Taunus and Majagua ....................... 61 3.2.2 Comparison of samplings in Taunus and Bulau ........................... 63 3.2.3 Comparison of samplings in Taunus and Somiedo....................... 69 3.2.4 Comparison of samplings in Taunus and Kleinwalsertal ............... 73 3.2.5 Joint examination of the fungal richness in all sampling areas ..... 75 3.3 Temporal variation of fungal occurrence in the Taunus....................... 80 3.3.1 Variation in fungal richness ........................................................... 81 3.3.2 Drivers for the temporal changes of fungal richness ..................... 86 3.3.3 Changes in fungal species composition ........................................ 91 3.3.4 Drivers for the temporal changes of fungal species composition .. 94 4 Discussion ................................................................................................. 99 4.1 Fungal diversity ................................................................................... 99 4.1.1 Fungal richness in the Taunus ...................................................... 99 II Table of contents 4.1.2 Fungal richness estimations in the Taunus ................................. 104 4.2 Spatial analyses of fungal diversity ................................................... 106 4.3 Temporal analyses of fungal occurrence ........................................... 113 4.3.1 Fungal variations between different years .................................. 113 4.3.2 Seasonal variations in fungal diversity ........................................ 114 4.4 Strategies for fungal inventory projects ............................................. 117 4.5 Aspects of conservation .................................................................... 121 5 Conclusions ............................................................................................. 131 6 References .............................................................................................. 132 7 Appendices .............................................................................................. 159 7.1 Sampling data ................................................................................... 159 7.2 Fungal diversity ................................................................................. 161 7.3 Plant diversity .................................................................................... 169 7.4 Joint examination of fungal diversity in all sampling areas ................ 170 7.5 Temporal variation in richness .......................................................... 176 8 Acknowledgements .................................................................................. 179 9 Curriculum Vitae ...................................................................................... 181 III Abbreviations Abbreviations AUT ...................................................................................................................................... Austria DEU .................................................................................................................................. Germany DNA ............................................................................................................... deoxyribonucleic acid ESP ........................................................................................................................................ Spain FFH ..................................................................................................................... flora-fauna-habitat GAM ..................................................................................................... generalized additive model GBIF ................................................................................... Global Biodiversity Information Facility GLM .......................................................................................................... generalized linear model GPS ....................................................................................................... Global Positioning System ICE .................................................................................................... incidence coverage estimator IPF ............................................................................................................Integrative Pilzforschung LOESS .................................................................................................. locally weighted regression m.a.s.l. ........................................................................................................ meters above sea level MYP .......................................................................................................... malt yeast peptone agar NCBI ....................................................................... National Center for Biotechnology Information NMDS ..................................................................................... non-metric multidimensional scaling