Key Buddhist values Conquer anger by non-anger; conquer evil by good; conquer the stingy by giving; conquer the liar by truth Dhammapada Supported by and in part arising from the world-view(s) and ideals of Buddhism, what are the central values that have been and are espoused? While greed, hatred and delusion are seen as the roots of unwholesome actions, with their complete destruction being equivalent to Nirva¯n· a (S. .), non-greed, non-hate and non-delusion are regarded as the roots of wholesome action, and can thus be seen as the central values of Buddhism. While expressed negatively, they are equivalent to: generos- ity and non-attachment; lovingkindness and compassion; and wisdom, in the sense of clear seeing of the nature of life and the absence of delu- sion or misorientation. A fuller list of wholesome qualities is found in the Abhidhamma litera- ture. In its Therava¯din form, this lists twenty-five wholesome or ‘beauti- ful’ mental qualities (Bodhi, : –, –). The first seven are: faith (trust in one’s sense of what is right), mindfulness (i.e. careful awareness), self-respect and regard for consequences, non-greed and non-hate, and equipoise (a balanced over-seeing of activities and events). The next twelve consist of six pairs of qualities which each relate both to consciousness itself and to the ‘body’ of mental states which accom- pany it: tranquillity, a light sense of ease, open receptivity, readiness to act, competence, and straightforwardness. All the above are seen as simultaneously present (though perhaps to varying degrees) in any wholesome mental state, as a basis for being fully human, and as a protecting, uplifting refuge. The remaining factors, when present, strengthen, deepen and channel wholesome mental ener- gies: right speech, right action, right livelihood, compassion, empathetic joy, and wisdom. Key Buddhist values These wholesome qualities counteract a variety of unwholesome ones. A brief list often found in the Suttas is that of the ‘five hindrances’: desire for sense-pleasures, ill-will, dullness and drowsiness, restlessness and unease, and vacillation, which can be seen as aspects of greed (), hatred () and delusion (–). In the Therava¯din Abhidhamma, the unwholesome qualities common to all unwholesome states of mind are: delusion, lack of self-respect, disregard for consequences, and restless- ness. Of those only present in some unwholesome states: () some are related to greed, namely greed itself, fixed views, and conceit or self- importance; () some are related to hate, i.e. hate itself, jealousy, miserli- ness and unease; () some are related to delusion, i.e. dullness, drowsiness and vacillation (Bodhi, : –, ). The above analysis draws on psycho-spiritual teachings primarily aimed at meditators and those seeking the highest goal of Buddhism, but the values described are of more general relevance in Buddhism. As L. S. Cousins says: Buddhist ethics can be looked at in several different ways. There is the situa- tion of the man in the street who is concerned with life in the world of the senses. On a superior level arises the aim of experiencing the joy and peace of a higher consciousness [through meditation]. Higher still is the desire to achieve the ultimate goal with a direct realization of the supramundane . Superficially the last two of these aims are only the concern of a small minor- ity, but in practice such a clear distinction cannot be drawn. The ethic designed for the ordinary man is intended both to be beneficial in its own right and to lead in the direction of the levels above. Normally a given individual will derive his standards from elements of all three, although the ‘mix’ may vary. (: ) The primary ethical activity which a Buddhist learns to develop is giving or generosity, da¯na, which forms a basis for further moral and spiritual development. In Southern Buddhism, it is the first of the ten ‘bases for effecting karmically fruitful actions’ (puñña-kiriya-vatthus): giving, keeping the moral precepts, meditative development, showing respect, helpful activity, sharing karmic fruitfulness, rejoicing at the karmic fruitfulness of others, teaching Dhamma, listening to Dhamma, and straightening out one’s views.1 11 D. A. .; cf. Gombrich, a: –. In the Suttas, just the first three are given (D. .; A. .; It. ). An introduction to Buddhist ethics The key focus of giving is the monastic San˙gha, or Community, whose ‘homeless’ way of life depends for its material support on the laity, to encourage their humility and to ensure that they do not become isolated from the laity. This supportive relationship is not a one-sided one, however, for while the laity provide the San˙gha with such items as alms- food, robes, medicine, and monasteries to live in, the monks and nuns, by their teaching and example, return a greater one, for ‘The gift of Dhamma excels all gifts’ (Dhp. ). Such acts of mutual giving thus form a key feature of the lay–monastic relationship: Thus, monks, this holy life is lived in mutual dependence, for ferrying across the flood [of the cycle of rebirths], for the utter ending of dukkha.(It. ) Generosity is not only practised towards the San˙gha, but, as a pervading value of Buddhist societies, is also practised towards family, friends, workpeople, guests (A. .–), the poor and homeless, and animals. Fielding Hall, a British official in nineteenth-century Burma, tells of an occasion when, on asking for a bill at what he took to be a village restau- rant, he found that he had been fed as a guest in a private house. In many countries, Buddhists demonstrate a great concern for doing karmically fruitful actions by deeds of giving, such as contributing to cer- emonies on occasions like an ordination, a funeral, a sickness, or a festi- val. Karmic fruitfulness is generated not only by an individual’s own giving, but also by rejoicing at the gifts of others. In Southern Buddhism, the touching of donated goods, or uttering the refrain sa¯dhu! (roughly, ‘well done!’, ‘amen!’) is seen as involving a person in the donations of another person. Thus communities are bound together in communal acts generating karmic fruitfulness, and social obligations are carried out by contributing to a ceremony sponsored by someone who has helped one by contributions in the past. In the case of expensive ceremonies such as an ordination, a rich person may help sponsor the ordination of a poorer person’s son. In this way the sponsor, the son and the parents all do a karmically fruitful act, with the mother being seen as benefiting particularly through ‘giving’ her son to the San˙gha. While giving may initially be performed for the sake of the material advantages that karmic fruitfulness brings, a motive which is then likely to take over arises from the joy and contentment that giving brings. Indeed, ‘a gift should be given in faith so that as a consequence the mind becomes calm and clear’ (Cousins, : ). The constant practice of giving also provides a foundation for moral development by fostering the breaking down of possessiveness and the growth of an open-hearted and Key Buddhist values Plate . Lay people giving alms-food to monks at a festival at Ratanagiri monastery, north-east England. sensitive attitude towards others. One expression of the ideal of gene- rosity is expressed thus: The Noble disciple lives at home with a heart free from the taint of stinginess, he is open handed, pure-handed, delighting in self-surrender, one to ask a favour of, one who delights in dispensing charitable gifts. (A. .) Giving fosters not only moral development, but also spiritual progress, because of its aspect of renunciation and non-attachment. It is the first of the ten Bodhisattva ‘perfections’ in both the Maha¯ya¯na and Therava¯da traditions. The popular Vessantara Ja¯taka2 expresses the pinnacle of the perfec- tion of generosity. It tells of the Bodhisattva in a past life as Prince Vessantara, who so rejoices at generosity that he gives whenever he is 2 J. .–; see Cone and Gombrich, ; a short version is found at Cp. story .. An introduction to Buddhist ethics asked for anything. One day, he gives away his city’s auspicious white elephant, which causes him to be banished. Wandering in the forest with his wife Maddı¯ and their two children, he meets an old brahmin who asks him for his children, to serve his young wife. Vessantara at first asks that his wife return from gathering food before the gift is made, but the brahmin refuses, as he fears that she will not agree to it (p. ). With tears in his eyes, Vessantara then agrees to part with his children, though they do not want to go (p. ); later his wife returns and is anguished at their absence. When Vessantara explains to her that he has given them away, and this for the sake of attaining Buddhahood, she accepts his action as right and even rejoices in it (p. ). Later, the god Sakka tests Vessantara further, by appearing to him in the guise of another brahmin who asks for his wife. Vessantara gives, yet again (pp. –), though Sakka then reveals himself and eventually the family is reunited, the children being watched over by the gods. In discussing the issues raised by this story, the Milindapañha explains that the gift of the children was not excessive, for it was the supreme gift, one which showed great heroism, restraint and renunciation, going against deeply ingrained attachments (Miln. –). Vessantara’s wife and children were the dearest things in the world to him (cf. pp. , ), yet he was willing to give even them, for the sake of future perfect Awakening, which would lead to the benefit of countless people.