Tourists’ Responses to Government Intentions for Red Tourism In China WAN, Xiang Available from Sheffield Hallam University Research Archive (SHURA) at: http://shura.shu.ac.uk/17301/ This document is the author deposited version. You are advised to consult the publisher's version if you wish to cite from it. Published version WAN, Xiang (2017). Tourists’ Responses to Government Intentions for Red Tourism In China. Doctoral, Sheffield Hallam University. Copyright and re-use policy See http://shura.shu.ac.uk/information.html Sheffield Hallam University Research Archive http://shura.shu.ac.uk Tourists’ Responses to Government Intentions for Red Tourism In China Xiang Wan A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Sheffield Hallam University For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy February 2017 1 Abstract This study analyses the Chinese government’s involvement in Red Tourism, with a special focus on the government’s political intentions in conveying messages at Red Tourism sites, and, critically, how tourists respond to the messages presented there. There are two separate identifiable phases in the development of Red Tourism since 2004. The first phase is from 2004 to 2010 and the second one is from 2011 to 2015. Shaoshan, the birthplace of Mao Zedong, and Zhijiang, which is dedicated to commemorating the surrender of the Japanese Imperial Army, are selected to examine the government’s political intentions behind the messages presented at these two Red Tourism sites. The former is the best example from the first phase, while the latter is one of the most important in the second phase. The messages produced by the Chinese government are communicated to tourists in Red Tourism sites, encouraging tourists to embrace certain political ideals. However, the messages presented at Red Tourism sites do not necessarily lead to tourists accepting unreservedly the government point of view. Tourists are free to reject this discourse and construct their own reading of the sites, and this they frequently do. Therefore, the sender of the messages, the government, and the receiver of the messages, the tourists, may not be in agreement. It is to be hoped that this study contributes to a better understanding of Red Tourism in contemporary China, while the responses of visitors may will provide valuable insights into the state of Chinese society today. 2 Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................ ii Contents ........................................................................................................... iii List of Figures ................................................................................................... x List of Tables ................................................................................................... xi List of Abbreviations ....................................................................................... xii Acknowledgements ......................................................................................... xiii Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 2 1.2 Significance of the development of heritage tourism .................................... 4 1.3 Significance of the development of Red Tourism ........................................ 5 1.4 Significance of the government’s involvement in Red Tourism ..................... 7 1.5 Significance of messages on ideologies at Red Tourism sites .................... 8 1.6 Significance of heritage interpretation at Red Tourism sites and the tourists’ responses ......................................................................................................... 9 1.7 Aim and objectives of the research .......................................................... 10 1.8 The context of the research ..................................................................... 12 1.8.1 Tourism in Mao’s regime from 1949 to 1978 .......................................... 12 1.8.2 The development of Tourism in China after 1978 ................................... 14 1.8.3 China’s economic and political development and the emergence of Red Tourism .......................................................................................................... 16 1.9 Thesis Structure ........................................................................................ 19 Chapter 2 Literature Review ........................................................................ 22 3 2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 23 2.2 The political role of heritage tourism and government’s involvement in tourism ........................................................................................................... 24 2.2.1 Heritage tourism as political ................................................................... 24 2.2.2 The involvement of governments in tourism ........................................... 26 2.3 Political ideology in heritage tourism .......................................................... 28 2.3.1 Patriotism .............................................................................................. 30 2.3.2 Communism .......................................................................................... 31 2.3.3 Nationalism ........................................................................................... 33 2.4 Heritage interpretation in tourism ............................................................. 35 2.5 Tourists' motivations and experiences of heritage tourism ....................... 39 2.6 Communist heritage tourism and Red Tourism in China .......................... 41 2.7 Conclusion ............................................................................................... 46 Chapter 3 Conceptual framework ............................................................... 47 3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 48 3.2 Evolution of the conceptual framework .................................................... 49 3.2.1 The first version of the conceptual framework ........................................ 49 3.2.2 The second version of the conceptual framework ................................... 50 3.2.3 The final version of the conceptual framework ........................................ 52 3.3 Specific elements in the development of the conceptual framework ......... 54 3.3.1 The two phases of Red Tourism ............................................................ 54 3.3.2 The Chinese government’s intentions behind Red Tourism .................. 55 4 3.3.3 Tourists’ responses to the government’s political intentions for Red Tourism at Shaoshan and Zhijiang ................................................................ 58 3.4 Application of the conceptual framework .................................................. 59 3.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................... 60 Chapter 4 Methodology ............................................................................... 62 4.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 63 4.2 Research approach .................................................................................. 63 4.2.1 Philosophical approach .......................................................................... 64 4.2.2 Theoretical approach ............................................................................. 66 4.3 Research design ...................................................................................... 66 4.3.1 Inductive approach ................................................................................. 66 4.3.2 Qualitative research ............................................................................... 67 4.3.3 Case study approach .............................................................................. 70 4.4 Research methods of data collection ........................................................ 75 4.4.1 Semi-structured interviews ..................................................................... 76 4.4.2 Non-participant observation .................................................................... 83 4.4.3 Documentary data collection ................................................................. 84 4.5 Data analysis ........................................................................................... 86 4.6 Data trustworthiness………………………………………………………….…88 4.7 Research limitations ................................................................................. 89 4.8 Introduction to the Case Study………………………………………………....90 4.8 Conclusion ............................................................................................... 93 Chapter 5: The context of the development of Red Tourism in China ..... 94 5 5.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 95 5.2 The first phase of Red Tourism Planning 2004 - 2010 in China ................ 96 5.2.1 The history of the CCP during 1921-1949 and the role of Mao and his influence on China’s governance and society ................................................. 97 5.2.2 The first