Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Social and Economic Sciences at the University of Antwerp and Doctor of Social Sciences at the KU Leuven The interplay between parental employment, social background and targeted cash support Julie Vinck Supervisors: Prof. dr. Wim Van Lancker - KU Leuven - Faculty of Social Sciences - Centre for Sociological Research Prof. dr. Bea Cantillon - University of Antwerp - Faculty of Social Sciences - Department of Sociology Joint PhD University of Antwerp and KU Leuven The poverty puzzle among children with a disability The interplay between parental employment, social background and targeted cash support Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Social and Economic Sciences at the University of Antwerp and Doctor of Social Sciences at the KU Leuven to be defended by Julie Vinck Supervisors Prof. dr. Wim Van Lancker ‒ KU Leuven Faculty of Social Sciences ‒ Centre for Sociological Research Prof. dr. Bea Cantillon ‒ University of Antwerp Faculty of Social Sciences ‒ Department of Sociology Antwerp, 2020 Doctoral jury Prof. dr. Wim Van Lancker ‒ supervisor ‒ KU Leuven Prof. dr. Bea Cantillon ‒ supervisor ‒ University of Antwerp Prof. dr. Sarah Van de Velde ‒ chair ‒ University of Antwerp Prof. dr. Jo Lebeer ‒ University of Antwerp Prof. dr. Griet Roets ‒ University of Ghent Prof. dr. Kitty Stewart ‒ London School of Economics and Political Science Prof. dr. Wim van Oorschot ‒ KU Leuven Prof. dr. Frank Vandenbroucke ‒ University of Amsterdam, University of Antwerp ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS During the five-year journey of writing this thesis I was supported, shaped and encouraged by a fantastic group of people. I owe a huge thank you to Wim, for being smart, critical, constructive, approachable, funny, relaxed, simply the best guide and motivator I could have wished for. Bea, for creating a stimulating research environment and inspiring anyone concerned about social issues. Frank, for guiding me into academia in the first place. Idunn and Jo, for the enriching collaborations along the way. The members of the jury, for devoting the time to read and review this thesis. The Research Foundation ‒ Flanders, for funding my fellowship, in Belgium as well as in Norway. The Datawarehouse, Census and FAPD, for providing the administrative data. The interviewed experts and parents, for giving insight behind the numbers. Joyce, for designing this happy book cover. My (former) colleagues, for compensating for the individual side of PhD life with enlightening inputs, pep talks, distracting chats and fantastic companionship. My friends, for filling my life with beauty, joy, enthusiasm and craziness. My families, for the opportunities, unconditional support and sweet concerns. And most importantly Jorn, for everything. TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1 1. The issue of child poverty .......................................................................... 2 2. Why a focus on childhood disability is needed .......................................... 6 3. Belgium as a case study............................................................................ 10 3.1. The Belgian policy measures for families of children with a disability 13 3.1.1. Policies (previously) organised at the federal level .......................... 13 3.1.2. Policies organised at the regional level ............................................. 15 4. Data .......................................................................................................... 16 5. Definitions and operationalisations .......................................................... 21 5.1. Childhood disability ............................................................................. 21 5.2. Child poverty ........................................................................................ 24 5.3. Parental employment and social background ....................................... 26 6. Overview of the thesis .............................................................................. 28 PART I Child poverty ........................................................................................ 33 CHAPTER 1 Belgium: creeping vulnerability of children ................................. 35 1.1. Introduction........................................................................................... 36 1.2. The Great Recession and its aftermath ................................................. 37 1.3. Child poverty before, during and after the crisis .................................. 41 1.3.1. Trends in living conditions of children in Belgium .......................... 41 1.3.2. The role of the labour market ............................................................ 46 1.3.3. Gauging the impact of the crisis ....................................................... 48 1.3.4. Sociodemographic characteristics ..................................................... 50 1.3.5. Work intensity and sociodemographic characteristics ...................... 53 1.4. Policies .................................................................................................. 56 1.4.1. Policies before the crisis ................................................................... 56 i 1.4.2. Policies during the crisis .................................................................... 59 1.4.3. Policy discourse ................................................................................. 61 1.4.4. The way forward ................................................................................ 62 1.5. Conclusion ............................................................................................. 66 PART II Childhood disability ............................................................................. 69 CHAPTER 2 Non-take-up of the supplemental child benefit for children with a disability in Belgium: a mixed-method approach ................................................ 71 2.1. Introduction ........................................................................................... 72 2.2. Understanding non-take-up: a dynamic multilevel model of claiming benefits ............................................................................................................. 73 2.3. Policies for children with a disability in Belgium: multiple recognition levels ............................................................................................................... 75 2.4. Methods and data .................................................................................. 78 2.5. Results ................................................................................................... 82 2.5.1. Non-take-up in the supplemental child benefit .................................. 82 2.5.2. Characteristics of children with a disability ...................................... 85 2.5.3. Determinants of non-take-up ............................................................. 87 2.5.3.1. Threshold stage .............................................................................. 88 2.5.3.2. Trade-off stage ............................................................................... 91 2.5.3.3. Application stage ........................................................................... 94 2.6. Discussion and conclusion .................................................................... 97 2.7. Appendix Chapter 2 ............................................................................ 100 2.7.1. Appendix 2.1 Supplemental child benefit: pillars, subscales, points and benefit amounts ....................................................................................... 100 2.7.2. Appendix 2.2 Topic questionnaires ................................................. 101 2.7.2.1. Experts ......................................................................................... 101 2.7.2.2. Parents .......................................................................................... 102 2.7.3. Appendix 2.3 Questionnaires .......................................................... 104 ii CHAPTER 3 An intersectional approach towards parental employment in families with a child with a disability: the case of Belgium ............................. 117 3.1. Introduction......................................................................................... 118 3.2. Theoretical framework and previous research .................................... 120 3.3. Research questions and hypotheses .................................................... 124 3.4. Data, methods and variables ............................................................... 125 3.5. Results ................................................................................................ 128 3.5.1. How does childhood disability overlap with social disadvantages? 128 3.5.2. Parental employment gap: childhood disabilities or social disadvantages? ............................................................................................... 131 3.6. Discussion and conclusion .................................................................. 136 3.7. Appendix Chapter 3 ............................................................................ 141 3.7.1. Appendix 3.1 Descriptive information on dependent, independent and control variables for children with and without a disability in Belgium, 2010 ... ......................................................................................................... 141