SCHOOLING CITIZENS: EDUCATION, CITIZENSHIP, AND DEMOCRACY IN MALI A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School Of Cornell University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Jaimie Bleck August 2011 © Jaimie Bleck i Abstract: This dissertation draws on original data, including a survey of 1000 citizens, to demonstrate the effect of different types of education on political knowledge and political participation in a nascent, African democracy. I find that any level of education, even informal and Islamic education, is positively and significantly correlated with higher levels of political knowledge as compared to having attend no school at all. I find that formal education, particularly at the secondary and university level, is significantly correlated with higher levels of political participation in difficult activities: campaigning, willingness to run for office, and contacting a government official. I argue that education contributes to political knowledge and participation by building citizens‟ sense of internal efficacy, and that the highest levels of education can endow citizens with French literacy – a key component of full political empowerment. Additionally, I identify a positive, significant correlation between parents who enroll(ed) their children in public school, and certain forms of electoral participation, as compared to other Malian citizens. I find a negative, significant correlation between madrassa consumers and voting as compared to any other citizens. I argue that state schooling, as a social service, can foster voting among parents of students through policy feedback mechanisms; however, any form of Francophone schooling contributes to a family‟s ability to participate in politics by endowing them with a linguistic broker. ii BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Jaimie Bleck was born and raised in New Jersey. She received her BA in Political Science from the University of Chicago in 2003. She worked as a Program Assistant for Winrock International on the African Education Initiative Ambassadors Girls Scholarship Program in Central and Southern Africa from 2004-2006. She began her graduate education at Cornell University in 2006. She will begin as a Ford Family Program Assistant Professor of Political Science at the University of Notre Dame in Fall 2011. iii In September 2006, Oumar Diakite and more than twenty five other youth activists were killed in a bus accident, while returning from a political rally in Gao. I dedicate this dissertation to Oumar – who was truly a model citizen for the world. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted to a large and diverse group of individuals who have shared their knowledge, support, and assistance to make this dissertation project possible. First, I thank the hundreds of Malians who took the time to share their wisdom, concerns, and reflections with me. Secondly, nothing would have been possible without my research team: Amadou Guindo, Seydou Niambele, Djenebou Sogodogo, Youba Khalifa, and our stylish driver - Solo Togola. I thank you each for your contributions: Guindo, for your intellectual curiosity and willingness to challenge me; Seydou, for your dedication, precision, and attention to detail; Djenebou, for your fearlessness, inspiration, and poise; and Youba, for your sense of humor, flexibility, and commitment to “team.” I thank the many others who made the project possible including the “substitute RAs” in Bamako, Timbuktu, and Mopti, Amadou Samake, Barou So and the So family in Kayes, the staff at the Ministry of Education, Territorial Administration, and National Election Commission, Abdoullaye Dembele, Mody Boubacar Guindo, Moumouni Soumano, and all of the educators who spoke with me. I must also thank network of support in Mali including my Malian parents Haoua Cisse and Moussa Sissoko, my in-laws – Sala and Salimata Sidibe, my brother and sisters-in-laws, the Kalabancoura Sports Club, Djeneba So, Bintou Traore, and my mentor and friend Bara Kassambara. I also want to thank the best expat crew ever for keeping my brain sane in 115 degree heat: Brandon County, Paul Davis, Marie Venner, Jessica Chervin, Owen Swearengen, Hillary Reddick, Spencer Orey, David Wong, and Devon Golaszewski. On the other side of the Atlantic, I acknowledge a diverse group of individuals who lent their expertise and interest to the project. I thank Will Reno and Lee Seymour for their early v support and for teaching me that political scientists could be cool. I benefitted from a supportive faculty at Cornell. David Patel forced me to think more creatively about research design and evidence. His continuous support and advice helped me to survive my year in the field. Peter Enns and Tom Pepinsky for their generous and level-headed responses to my last minute statistical questions. I thank Richard Bensel for his creative critiques, which forced me to think deeply about the hardest concepts. I must thank Peter Katzenstein for his consistent support throughout my entire Cornell experience. I thank participants of the APSA Africa Conference, Gainesville, APSA, CAPERS, and ASA conferences as well as the faculty at the Kellogg Institute at Notre Dame and Muna Ndolo and Cornell‟s Institute for African Development for valuable feedback. I must single out Kristin Michelitch, Keith Weghorst, Kevin Fridy, El Hassen Ould Ahmed, Dan Smith, Emeka Okerere, and AbdoulKarim Saidou for their support and suggestions. Leo Villalón, Peter von Doepp, and David Stasavage gave critical comments on chapters presented at conferences. Finally, to my outstanding committee – who each contributed to the project in diverse and complementary ways. Devra Moehler‟s own dissertation fieldwork inspired my project; the dissertation is far better due to her diligent comments and suggestions. Ken Robert‟s ability to bridge comparative perspectives far beyond my reach made the theoretical framing of the project much richer. Valerie Bunce enabled me to step back and to see my own contribution to the political science literature more clearly. Finally, I thank Nicolas van de Walle who has been an outstanding mentor and advisor. I thank him for challenging me and believing in me at critical times and for always managing to ask me the most important questions. I have learned greatly from his humble, yet incisive commentary. vi To the most intellectually and emotionally supportive grad school cohort one could ever imagine: May Cornell‟s reign on the dance floor continue forever. Special shout outs to the old school posse for their guidance and wisdom: Tariq Thachil, Steve Nelson, Michelle Smith, Benjamin Brake, Julie Ajinkya, Deondra “Dro” Rose, Chris Zepeda, Simon Cotton, Simon Gilhooley, and Michael Miller. Hi 5s to the “youth” for their vitality and engagement with my work: Pablo Yanguas, Phil Ayoub, Igor Logvinenko, Don Leonard, Desmond Jagamond, Janice Gallagher, Martha Wilfart, and Robert Braun. To my rockstar brother and parents – thanks for encouraging me to do what I thought was interesting, and for tolerating and appreciating my adventures. Lastly, to my che Idrissa: thank you for challenging me to be a stronger, smarter, and more empathetic person every day. I am excited to be your apprendike as our journey continues. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH……………………………………………………… iii DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………….. v TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………... viii LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………. xi LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS………………………………………………………xiii CHAPTER ONE: DEMOCRATIC TRANSITIONS AND EDUCATIONAL EXPANSION: SCHOOLING AND REGIME BUILDING IN THE 21ST CENTURY………………………………………………………….. 1 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Education, Voice, and Loyalty: Strengthening Citizenship and Democracy 1.3 Education, Voice, and Loyalty in Africa 1.4 Competing for Allegiance: Education in the Third Wave 1.5 Research Design 1.6 Sampling and Survey Implementation in Mali 1.7 Dissertation Map: Exploring Education and Citizenship in Mali CHAPTER TWO: POLITIKI NI FANGA NA MALI (POWER AND POLITICS IN MALI)………………………………………………………………………….. 32 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Politiki Man ɲi: Popular Skepticism in Malian Democracy 2.3 Politiki Man ɲi: The Roots of Skepticism 2.4 Alternative Forms of Authority 2.5 Religious Authority: Two Public Spheres? 2.6 The New Emperor: Kalanso and Politiki 2.7 The State of Political Knowledge 2.8 The Participation Problem 2.9 The Obstacles to Democratic Deepening in Mali CHAPTER THREE: MALI‟S EVOLVING EDUCATIONAL LANDSCAPE…… 66 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Pre-colonial and Colonial Education 3.3 Post Independence/Pre-Democratization Education 3.4 Education in the Democratic Era viii 3.5 Educational Content: Forming Democratic Citizens? 3.6 The Growth of Religious Schooling 3.7 Schooling Supply in Mali 3.8 Girls‟ Education 3.9 Regional Variation 3.10 Conclusion CHAPTER FOUR: CAN EDUCATION CREATE BETTER CITIZENS: STUDENTS?.. 100 4.1 Introduction 4.2 What do Citizens Know and Why do they Participate: Building Initial Hypotheses 4.3 Analyzing the Relationship between Education, Knowledge, and Participation 4.4 Education and Political Knowledge 4.5 Political Knowledge and School Type 4.6 Education and Participation in Different Activities 4.7 Participation and Control Variables 4.8 Higher Education, Voting, and Party Identification 4.9 School Type and Participation 4.10 Refining and Isolating Mechanisms 4.11 Education: Exploring Causal Mechanisms 4.12 What does Mass Education Mean for the Future of Democracy?