PURSUING THE GOOD LIFE: AN EXAMINATION OF PURPOSE, MEANINGFUL ENGAGEMENT, AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING IN EMERGING ADULTHOOD A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION AND THE COMMITTEE ON GRADUATE STUDIES OF STANFORD UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Matthew Joseph Bundick December 2009 © 2010 by Matthew Joseph Bundick. All Rights Reserved. Re-distributed by Stanford University under license with the author. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution- Noncommercial 3.0 United States License. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/us/ This dissertation is online at: http://purl.stanford.edu/cb008zb6473 ii I certify that I have read this dissertation and that, in my opinion, it is fully adequate in scope and quality as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. William Damon, Primary Adviser I certify that I have read this dissertation and that, in my opinion, it is fully adequate in scope and quality as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Richard Shavelson, Co-Adviser I certify that I have read this dissertation and that, in my opinion, it is fully adequate in scope and quality as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. John Krumboltz I certify that I have read this dissertation and that, in my opinion, it is fully adequate in scope and quality as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Shirley Feldman Approved for the Stanford University Committee on Graduate Studies. Patricia J. Gumport, Vice Provost Graduate Education This signature page was generated electronically upon submission of this dissertation in electronic format. An original signed hard copy of the signature page is on file in University Archives. iii ABSTRACT Emerging adulthood represents a critical phase for the development of purpose in life, yet little is known about the process through which young people become purposeful, or what the lasting benefits of such purposefulness might be. The present investigation had two overarching goals: 1) to advance the notion of meaningful engagement as important toward purpose development, and 2) to test multiple components of a process model through which meaningful engagement and purpose lead to psychological well-being. Specifically, four hypotheses were put to the test though three interconnected studies. The first hypothesis, addressed in Study 1 using cross-sectional data, posited that purpose and meaningful engagement would be associated with psychological well-being. The second hypothesis proposed a mediational model, wherein the relationship between meaningful engagement and psychological well-being would be mediated by purpose; this hypothesis was tested first with cross-sectional data in Study 1 and again using longitudinal data in Study 2. Third, a moderation hypothesis was tested on the temporal relationship between purpose and psychological well-being, specifically that the relationship would be stronger for those high in self-transcendent life goals. Finally, Study 3 tested an intervention hypothesis to see whether engaging in deep reflection on and discussion about one’s life goals can increase both purpose and, consequently, psychological well-being. The results showed partial confirmation of the hypotheses. The cross-sectional analyses showed strong relations among meaningful engagement, purpose, and psychological well-being, and provided support for the proposed mediational model. iv However, the longitudinal analyses did not show significant relations among the constructs. The moderation hypothesis did provide evidence that the path from purpose to well-being was stronger for those high on self-transcendent life goals, suggesting psychological benefits of pursuing purposes beyond oneself (but not self-oriented life goals). Finally, there was a significant positive effect of engaging in deep discussion and reflection on one’s life goals, toward both increased purpose and increased psychological well-being. Implications of these findings for higher education in particular are discussed, and directions for future research are presented. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS For the many gifts of knowledge, guidance, and support that have been bestowed upon me along this long and winding road—by friends, family, mentors and colleagues alike—I can only begin here to express my deepest gratitude. First, I would like to acknowledge my professional indebtedness to the present and past scholars in the Stanford Center on Adolescence with whom I have worked on the Youth Purpose Project, most importantly my advisor, Bill Damon, on whose incredibly broad intellectual shoulders I have attempted to stand (and to whom I will be forever grateful for the opportunity). I will refrain from individually naming the rest of my colleagues on this project who have not only influenced me and my thinking, but who also laid the theoretical and empirical groundwork upon which my present framework and studies were founded. Though my current work does not completely reflect the theory advanced and research questions taken on by the Youth Purpose Project, much of my thinking and the majority of my data originated in this project, and I am tremendously appreciative for the experience and the access. My further professional thanks go out to Rich Shavelson, Shirley Feldman, and John Krumboltz, for their investments in me through the dissertation process (and throughout my graduate career) as members of my various committees including reading and oral committees, as well as Sheri Sheppard for her willingness to fill the role of my committee University Chair. In particular, Shirley has served as a wonderful academic in- house counsel since the beginning, and Rich has provided me not only invaluable advice but opportunities to broaden my scholarly horizons in ways that will no doubt serve me vi well long into my professional future. Additionally, I would like to thank the John Templeton Foundation and the Thrive Foundation for Youth for their support of the Youth Purpose Project and the present research, in particular the Thrive crew for the amazing relationships I have built with them and their close-knit affiliates. For all the friends and family who have supported me along the way, I cannot offer enough thanks. My life has been enriched more than I could have imagined by the friendships I have built during my time in graduate school, in ways that will no doubt last long into the future. My parents, Joe and Paulette, are and will always be the rocks upon which my life and whatever successes it might bring have been built. And finally, to my wife, Jackie, I owe absolutely everything. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi LIST OF TABLES xii LIST OF FIGURES xiv CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 Introduction 1 Definition and Measurement Issues 4 Definitional Issues 5 Purpose 5 Meaningful engagement 12 Psychological well-being 17 Measurement Issues 21 Purpose 21 Meaningful engagement 24 Psychological well-being 25 Review of the Empirical Literature 30 Purpose and its Relations with Well-Being and Engagement 31 Meaningful Engagement and its Relations with Purpose and Well-Being 38 Summary 41 CHAPTER 2: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 43 Definitions of the Constructs 43 Purpose 43 Meaningful Engagement 48 viii Psychological Well-Being 49 Conceptual Model 51 Research Questions and Hypotheses 58 CHAPTER 3: EMPIRICAL APPROACH AND MEASUREMENT ISSUES 62 Overview 62 Measurement Issues 63 Method 64 Participants and Procedure 64 Missing Data 66 Measures 68 Meaningful Engagement 68 Purpose and Psychological Well-Being 77 Purpose 79 Psychological well-being 82 Measurement Model 84 CHAPTER 4: STUDY 1 – A CROSS-SECTIONAL TEST OF THE MEDIATIONAL MODEL 96 Overview and Predictions for Study 1 96 Method 96 Participants and Procedure 96 Measures 97 Analytic Procedures 97 Results 97 Relations among Purpose, Meaningful Engagement, and Psychological Well-Being 98 Testing the Mediational Model 99 Study 1 Discussion 101 ix CHAPTER 5: STUDY 2 – LONGITUDINAL RELATIONS AMONG MEANINGFUL ENGAGEMENT, PURPOSE, AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING 106 Overview and Predictions for Study 2 106 Overview of Data and Measurement Approach 111 Method 112 Participants and Procedure 112 Attrition 113 Measures 114 Mediation Measurement Model 119 Measurement Invariance 124 Results 127 Mean Differences 127 Testing the Longitudinal Mediational Model 129 Testing the Longitudinal Moderation Hypothesis 132 BTS-orientation of life goals as moderator 133 Self-orientation of life goals as moderator 137 Study 2 Discussion 139 CHAPTER 6: STUDY 3 – EXPLORATION OF A ―PURPOSE INTERVENTION‖ 143 Overview and Predictions for Study 3 143 The Purpose Interview 146 Purpose Interview as Purpose Intervention 147 Method 151 Participants and Procedure 151 Attrition 153 Measures 154 Analytic Plan 156 Study 3 Results and Discussion 158 Purpose 158 x Psychological Well-Being 162 CHAPTER 7: GENERAL DISCUSSION 166 Summary of Conceptual Framework 166 Summary of the Main Findings 168 Implications 174 Limitations 176 Future Directions 178 APPENDICES 181 Appendix A. Relevant Youth Purpose Project Survey Materials and Sample Page from Online Survey 181 Appendix B. Results of Exploratory Factor Analyses from Chapter Three 187 Appendix C. Youth Purpose Project Interview protocol 195 REFERENCES 197 xi LIST OF TABLES Page Table 1 Exploratory Factor Analysis of Meaningful Engagement Items with Oblique Rotation 71 Table 2 Descriptive Statistics for Meaningful Engagement Activity Domain Subscales