Michalko, Jan (2019) Female political elites as an empowerment resource : an exploration of the 'role model effect' in South Africa. PhD thesis. SOAS University of London. http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/30982 Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non‐commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this thesis, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", name of the School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination. FEMALE POLITICAL ELITES AS AN EMPOWERMENT RESOURCE: AN EXPLORATION OF THE ‘ROLE MODEL EFFECT’ IN SOUTH AFRICA JÁN MICHALKO Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD in Gender Studies 2018 Centre for Gender Studies School of OrientaL and African Studies University of London 1 Abstract The ‘Role Model Effect’ (RME) broadly postuLates that women’s presence in maLe-dominated positions of political power encourages other women to participate in politics. In this study I contribute to the RME scholarship by expanding the analytical scope prevalent in the Literature, as I examine the extent to which values, characteristics and behaviours that femaLe university students associate with the term ‘femaLe poLiticaL eLite’ serve as normative resources when they make important Life decisions. Hence, this study analyses how the RME functions by emphasising the lived experiences of femaLe students at the University of Johannesburg in South Africa. Based on focus group discussions and semi-structured interviews conducted in 2016-2017, I find that most students do not directLy consider women in politics as roLe modeLs. However, students create a connection between themseLves and an ideal female political elite through leadership. They construct a set of norms that they expect of femaLe poLiticaL elites as leaders and as ideaL versions of themseLves: someone educated, hard-working, active, caring, steadfast, and independent. Many women in poLitics do not meet these ideaL norms. Nevertheless, they contribute to the construction of the ideal type together with a variety of women and men who serve as roLe modeLs and anti-heroes for the students. These findings suggest that it would be beneficiaL for women’s empowerment and poLiticaL representation schoLars and activists, especially within the western context, to consider more fuLLy people’s agency and the construction of the normative ideaL. ConsequentLy, this shift in focus highlights the importance of access to reLevant information about a variety of women across public and private spheres and people’s ability to critically analyse this information. Moreover, it caLLs for future explorations of context-relevant empowering ideaLs and constructs. 3 Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................ 3 Table of Contents .......................................................................................................... 4 Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... 7 Acronyms and Abbreviations ................................................................................... 8 1 Women in Politics as Role Models: Gender, Power and Representation ...................................................................................................... 10 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 10 Features of Women and PoLiticaL Representation SchoLarship ......................... 14 Representation and Participation Nexus .................................................................... 21 Research Question and Sub-Questions ........................................................................ 25 Structure of the Thesis ........................................................................................................ 29 2 Methodology: Practicing Intersectional Feminist Research .................... 31 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 31 Research Site ........................................................................................................................... 31 Focus Group Discussions and Semi-Structured Interviews ................................ 37 Ethical Considerations ......................................................................................................... 42 Participants’ Background ................................................................................................... 44 Situated Knowledge: Importance of DecoLonisation and #FeesMustFaLL ..... 47 Reflections on Positionality and Power ....................................................................... 52 Writing and KnowLedge Production .............................................................................. 60 Research Limitations ........................................................................................................... 62 3 Contextualising Power in South Africa: Gender, Race, Class and Age .. 66 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 66 Politics of Patronage and Corruption ............................................................................ 67 The PatriarchaL CompLacency of the ANC Women’s League ............................... 71 Toxic MascuLinity and Submissive Femininity .......................................................... 75 VioLence against Women and BLack Bodies in HE ................................................... 79 Youth as Policy-Making Objects ...................................................................................... 83 Primacy of Experience over Empathy .......................................................................... 87 Trust-Building: Cross-Racial Encounters in HE Settings ...................................... 92 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 97 4 Conceptual Framework: Identity, Difference and Power ......................... 99 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 99 RoLe ModeL Theorising in Education and Career DeveLopment ..................... 100 Normative Power of the ELites ...................................................................................... 103 Identity, Difference and Intersectionality ................................................................ 111 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 119 4 5 Exceptional People: Career and Life Journey Role Models .................... 120 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 120 Role Models and Career Aspirations .......................................................................... 121 Tenuous Links between Education and Careers ................................................... 125 Race and Precarious Life ................................................................................................. 128 Higher Education for the Labour Market ................................................................. 132 The Importance of ReLevant Information: Nkosazana, Winnie and ThuLi . 135 The Impact of the PoLiticaL System .............................................................................. 141 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 146 6 Exceptional People: The Elites, Leaders and Middle Classes ................ 148 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 148 Eliteness as Power, Wealth and Prestige ................................................................. 149 Political Elite – Leader Link and GenerationaL Tensions ................................... 153 Eliteness as Being Middle or Working Class ........................................................... 161 Consumption & Economic WeLLbeing ........................................................................ 165 Eliteness and Middle Classness: Wits vs. UJ ............................................................ 171 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 179 7 Exceptional People: The Deserving and Hard-Working Achievers ..... 181 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 181 Who is Deserving? The Impact of NeoLiberaLism .................................................. 182 Deserving